Week+1.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "---\n",
    "\n",
    "_You are currently looking at **version 1.0** of this notebook. To download notebooks and datafiles, as well as get help on Jupyter notebooks in the Coursera platform, visit the [Jupyter Notebook FAQ](https://www.coursera.org/learn/python-data-analysis/resources/0dhYG) course resource._\n",
    "\n",
    "---"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# The Python Programming Language: Functions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = 1\n",
    "y = 2\n",
    "x + y"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 23,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`add_numbers` is a function that takes two numbers and adds them together."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 24,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def add_numbers(x, y):\n",
    "    return x + y\n",
    "\n",
    "add_numbers(1, 2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`add_numbers` updated to take an optional 3rd parameter. Using `print` allows printing of multiple expressions within a single cell."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "3\n",
      "6\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def add_numbers(x,y,z=None):\n",
    "    if (z==None):\n",
    "        return x+y\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        return x+y+z\n",
    "\n",
    "print(add_numbers(1, 2))\n",
    "print(add_numbers(1, 2, 3))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`add_numbers` updated to take an optional flag parameter."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Flag is true!\n",
      "3\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def add_numbers(x, y, z=None, flag=False):\n",
    "    if (flag):\n",
    "        print('Flag is true!')\n",
    "    if (z==None):\n",
    "        return x + y\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        return x + y + z\n",
    "    \n",
    "print(add_numbers(1, 2, flag=True))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Assign function `add_numbers` to variable `a`."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def add_numbers(x,y):\n",
    "    return x+y\n",
    "\n",
    "a = add_numbers\n",
    "a(1,2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# The Python Programming Language: Types and Sequences"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `type` to return the object's type."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "str"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 28,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type('This is a string')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "NoneType"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 29,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(None)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 30,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "int"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 30,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(1)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 31,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "float"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 31,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(1.0)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "function"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 32,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(add_numbers)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Tuples are an immutable data structure (cannot be altered)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 33,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "tuple"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 33,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = (1, 'a', 2, 'b')\n",
    "type(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Lists are a mutable data structure."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 34,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "list"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 34,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = [1, 'a', 2, 'b']\n",
    "type(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `append` to append an object to a list."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 35,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 'a', 2, 'b', 3.3]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.append(3.3)\n",
    "print(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "This is an example of how to loop through each item in the list."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 36,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "a\n",
      "2\n",
      "b\n",
      "3.3\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for item in x:\n",
    "    print(item)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Or using the indexing operator:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "a\n",
      "2\n",
      "b\n",
      "3.3\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "i=0\n",
    "while( i != len(x) ):\n",
    "    print(x[i])\n",
    "    i = i + 1"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `+` to concatenate lists."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 2, 3, 4]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 38,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[1,2] + [3,4]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `*` to repeat lists."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 1, 1]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 39,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[1]*3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use the `in` operator to check if something is inside a list."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 40,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "1 in [1, 2, 3]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Now let's look at strings. Use bracket notation to slice a string."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 41,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "T\n",
      "T\n",
      "Th\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = 'This is a string'\n",
    "print(x[0]) #first character\n",
    "print(x[0:1]) #first character, but we have explicitly set the end character\n",
    "print(x[0:2]) #first two characters\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "This will return the last element of the string."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'g'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 42,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x[-1]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "This will return the slice starting from the 4th element from the end and stopping before the 2nd element from the end."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'ri'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 43,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x[-4:-2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "This is a slice from the beginning of the string and stopping before the 3rd element."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Thi'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 44,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x[:3]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "And this is a slice starting from the 3rd element of the string and going all the way to the end."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'s is a string'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 45,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x[3:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Christopher Brooks\n",
      "ChristopherChristopherChristopher\n",
      "True\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "firstname = 'Christopher'\n",
    "lastname = 'Brooks'\n",
    "\n",
    "print(firstname + ' ' + lastname)\n",
    "print(firstname*3)\n",
    "print('Chris' in firstname)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`split` returns a list of all the words in a string, or a list split on a specific character."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Christopher\n",
      "Brooks\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "firstname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[0] # [0] selects the first element of the list\n",
    "lastname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[-1] # [-1] selects the last element of the list\n",
    "print(firstname)\n",
    "print(lastname)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Make sure you convert objects to strings before concatenating."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-48-1623ac76de6e>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;34m'Chris'\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m+\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'Chris' + 2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Chris2'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 49,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'Chris' + str(2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Dictionaries associate keys with values."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'brooksch@umich.edu'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = {'Christopher Brooks': 'brooksch@umich.edu', 'Bill Gates': 'billg@microsoft.com'}\n",
    "x['Christopher Brooks'] # Retrieve a value by using the indexing operator\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson'] = None\n",
    "x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Iterate over all of the keys:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 52,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false,
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "billg@microsoft.com\n",
      "brooksch@umich.edu\n",
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for name in x:\n",
    "    print(x[name])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Iterate over all of the values:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 53,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "billg@microsoft.com\n",
      "brooksch@umich.edu\n",
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for email in x.values():\n",
    "    print(email)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Iterate over all of the items in the list:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 54,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Bill Gates\n",
      "billg@microsoft.com\n",
      "Christopher Brooks\n",
      "brooksch@umich.edu\n",
      "Kevyn Collins-Thompson\n",
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for name, email in x.items():\n",
    "    print(name)\n",
    "    print(email)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "You can unpack a sequence into different variables:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 55,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', 'brooksch@umich.edu')\n",
    "fname, lname, email = x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 56,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Christopher'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 56,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fname"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 57,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Brooks'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 57,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "lname"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Make sure the number of values you are unpacking matches the number of variables being assigned."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "ValueError",
     "evalue": "too many values to unpack (expected 3)",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mValueError\u001b[0m                                Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-58-9ce70064f53e>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      1\u001b[0m \u001b[0mx\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m=\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'Christopher'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m'Brooks'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m'brooksch@umich.edu'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m'Ann Arbor'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 2\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mfname\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0mlname\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0memail\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m=\u001b[0m \u001b[0mx\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mValueError\u001b[0m: too many values to unpack (expected 3)"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', 'brooksch@umich.edu', 'Ann Arbor')\n",
    "fname, lname, email = x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# The Python Programming Language: More on Strings"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-59-82ccfdd3d5d3>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'Chris'\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m+\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print('Chris' + 2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Chris2\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print('Chris' + str(2))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Python has a built in method for convenient string formatting."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Chris bought 4 item(s) at a price of 3.24 each for a total of 12.96\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sales_record = {\n",
    "'price': 3.24,\n",
    "'num_items': 4,\n",
    "'person': 'Chris'}\n",
    "\n",
    "sales_statement = '{} bought {} item(s) at a price of {} each for a total of {}'\n",
    "\n",
    "print(sales_statement.format(sales_record['person'],\n",
    "                             sales_record['num_items'],\n",
    "                             sales_record['price'],\n",
    "                             sales_record['num_items']*sales_record['price']))\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# Reading and Writing CSV files"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Let's import our datafile mpg.csv, which contains fuel economy data for 234 cars."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false,
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[{'': '1',\n",
       "  'class': 'compact',\n",
       "  'cty': '18',\n",
       "  'cyl': '4',\n",
       "  'displ': '1.8',\n",
       "  'drv': 'f',\n",
       "  'fl': 'p',\n",
       "  'hwy': '29',\n",
       "  'manufacturer': 'audi',\n",
       "  'model': 'a4',\n",
       "  'trans': 'auto(l5)',\n",
       "  'year': '1999'},\n",
       " {'': '2',\n",
       "  'class': 'compact',\n",
       "  'cty': '21',\n",
       "  'cyl': '4',\n",
       "  'displ': '1.8',\n",
       "  'drv': 'f',\n",
       "  'fl': 'p',\n",
       "  'hwy': '29',\n",
       "  'manufacturer': 'audi',\n",
       "  'model': 'a4',\n",
       "  'trans': 'manual(m5)',\n",
       "  'year': '1999'},\n",
       " {'': '3',\n",
       "  'class': 'compact',\n",
       "  'cty': '20',\n",
       "  'cyl': '4',\n",
       "  'displ': '2',\n",
       "  'drv': 'f',\n",
       "  'fl': 'p',\n",
       "  'hwy': '31',\n",
       "  'manufacturer': 'audi',\n",
       "  'model': 'a4',\n",
       "  'trans': 'manual(m6)',\n",
       "  'year': '2008'}]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 62,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import csv\n",
    "\n",
    "%precision 2\n",
    "\n",
    "with open('mpg.csv') as csvfile:\n",
    "    mpg = list(csv.DictReader(csvfile))\n",
    "    \n",
    "mpg[:3] # The first three dictionaries in our list."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`csv.Dictreader` has read in each row of our csv file as a dictionary. `len` shows that our list is comprised of 234 dictionaries."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "234"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 63,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(mpg)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`keys` gives us the column names of our csv."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dict_keys(['', 'year', 'manufacturer', 'model', 'fl', 'cty', 'cyl', 'displ', 'trans', 'hwy', 'class', 'drv'])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 64,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mpg[0].keys()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "This is how to find the average cty fuel economy across all cars. All values in the dictionaries are strings, so we need to convert to float."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 65,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "16.86"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 65,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sum(float(d['cty']) for d in mpg) / len(mpg)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Similarly this is how to find the average hwy fuel economy across all cars."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 66,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "23.44"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 66,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sum(float(d['hwy']) for d in mpg) / len(mpg)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `set` to return the unique values for the number of cylinders the cars in our dataset have."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 67,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'4', '5', '6', '8'}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 67,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "cylinders = set(d['cyl'] for d in mpg)\n",
    "cylinders"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Here's a more complex example where we are grouping the cars by number of cylinder, and finding the average cty mpg for each group."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 68,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[('4', 21.01), ('5', 20.50), ('6', 16.22), ('8', 12.57)]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 68,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "CtyMpgByCyl = []\n",
    "\n",
    "for c in cylinders: # iterate over all the cylinder levels\n",
    "    summpg = 0\n",
    "    cyltypecount = 0\n",
    "    for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries\n",
    "        if d['cyl'] == c: # if the cylinder level type matches,\n",
    "            summpg += float(d['cty']) # add the cty mpg\n",
    "            cyltypecount += 1 # increment the count\n",
    "    CtyMpgByCyl.append((c, summpg / cyltypecount)) # append the tuple ('cylinder', 'avg mpg')\n",
    "\n",
    "CtyMpgByCyl.sort(key=lambda x: x[0])\n",
    "CtyMpgByCyl"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `set` to return the unique values for the class types in our dataset."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'2seater', 'compact', 'midsize', 'minivan', 'pickup', 'subcompact', 'suv'}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 69,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "vehicleclass = set(d['class'] for d in mpg) # what are the class types\n",
    "vehicleclass"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "And here's an example of how to find the average hwy mpg for each class of vehicle in our dataset."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[('pickup', 16.88),\n",
       " ('suv', 18.13),\n",
       " ('minivan', 22.36),\n",
       " ('2seater', 24.80),\n",
       " ('midsize', 27.29),\n",
       " ('subcompact', 28.14),\n",
       " ('compact', 28.30)]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 70,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "HwyMpgByClass = []\n",
    "\n",
    "for t in vehicleclass: # iterate over all the vehicle classes\n",
    "    summpg = 0\n",
    "    vclasscount = 0\n",
    "    for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries\n",
    "        if d['class'] == t: # if the cylinder amount type matches,\n",
    "            summpg += float(d['hwy']) # add the hwy mpg\n",
    "            vclasscount += 1 # increment the count\n",
    "    HwyMpgByClass.append((t, summpg / vclasscount)) # append the tuple ('class', 'avg mpg')\n",
    "\n",
    "HwyMpgByClass.sort(key=lambda x: x[1])\n",
    "HwyMpgByClass"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# The Python Programming Language: Dates and Times"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 71,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import datetime as dt\n",
    "import time as tm"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`time` returns the current time in seconds since the Epoch. (January 1st, 1970)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 72,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1477489335.39"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 72,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tm.time()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Convert the timestamp to datetime."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 73,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "datetime.datetime(2016, 10, 26, 13, 42, 18, 205232)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 73,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dtnow = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(tm.time())\n",
    "dtnow"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Handy datetime attributes:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 74,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(2016, 10, 26, 13, 42, 18)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 74,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dtnow.year, dtnow.month, dtnow.day, dtnow.hour, dtnow.minute, dtnow.second # get year, month, day, etc.from a datetime"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`timedelta` is a duration expressing the difference between two dates."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 75,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "datetime.timedelta(100)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 75,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "delta = dt.timedelta(days = 100) # create a timedelta of 100 days\n",
    "delta"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`date.today` returns the current local date."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 76,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "today = dt.date.today()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 77,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "datetime.date(2016, 7, 18)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 77,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "today - delta # the date 100 days ago"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 78,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 78,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "today > today-delta # compare dates"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# The Python Programming Language: Objects and map()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "An example of a class in python:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 79,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "class Person:\n",
    "    department = 'School of Information' #a class variable\n",
    "\n",
    "    def set_name(self, new_name): #a method\n",
    "        self.name = new_name\n",
    "    def set_location(self, new_location):\n",
    "        self.location = new_location"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 80,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Christopher Brooks live in Ann Arbor, MI, USA and works in the department School of Information\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "person = Person()\n",
    "person.set_name('Christopher Brooks')\n",
    "person.set_location('Ann Arbor, MI, USA')\n",
    "print('{} live in {} and works in the department {}'.format(person.name, person.location, person.department))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Here's an example of mapping the `min` function between two lists."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 81,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<map at 0x7fa8df53ffd0>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 81,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "store1 = [10.00, 11.00, 12.34, 2.34]\n",
    "store2 = [9.00, 11.10, 12.34, 2.01]\n",
    "cheapest = map(min, store1, store2)\n",
    "cheapest"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Now let's iterate through the map object to see the values."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 82,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false,
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "9.0\n",
      "11.0\n",
      "12.34\n",
      "2.01\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for item in cheapest:\n",
    "    print(item)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# The Python Programming Language: Lambda and List Comprehensions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Here's an example of lambda that takes in three parameters and adds the first two."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 83,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "my_function = lambda a, b, c : a + b"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 84,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 84,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "my_function(1, 2, 3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Let's iterate from 0 to 999 and return the even numbers."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 85,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0,\n",
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      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 85,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "my_list = []\n",
    "for number in range(0, 1000):\n",
    "    if number % 2 == 0:\n",
    "        my_list.append(number)\n",
    "my_list"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Now the same thing but with list comprehension."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 86,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
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       " 902,\n",
       " 904,\n",
       " 906,\n",
       " 908,\n",
       " 910,\n",
       " 912,\n",
       " 914,\n",
       " 916,\n",
       " 918,\n",
       " 920,\n",
       " 922,\n",
       " 924,\n",
       " 926,\n",
       " 928,\n",
       " 930,\n",
       " 932,\n",
       " 934,\n",
       " 936,\n",
       " 938,\n",
       " 940,\n",
       " 942,\n",
       " 944,\n",
       " 946,\n",
       " 948,\n",
       " 950,\n",
       " 952,\n",
       " 954,\n",
       " 956,\n",
       " 958,\n",
       " 960,\n",
       " 962,\n",
       " 964,\n",
       " 966,\n",
       " 968,\n",
       " 970,\n",
       " 972,\n",
       " 974,\n",
       " 976,\n",
       " 978,\n",
       " 980,\n",
       " 982,\n",
       " 984,\n",
       " 986,\n",
       " 988,\n",
       " 990,\n",
       " 992,\n",
       " 994,\n",
       " 996,\n",
       " 998]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 86,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "my_list = [number for number in range(0,1000) if number % 2 == 0]\n",
    "my_list"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "# The Python Programming Language: Numerical Python (NumPy)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 87,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import numpy as np"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "## Creating Arrays"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Create a list and convert it to a numpy array"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 88,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([1, 2, 3])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 88,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mylist = [1, 2, 3]\n",
    "x = np.array(mylist)\n",
    "x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Or just pass in a list directly"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 89,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([4, 5, 6])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 89,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "y = np.array([4, 5, 6])\n",
    "y"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Pass in a list of lists to create a multidimensional array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 90,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 7,  8,  9],\n",
       "       [10, 11, 12]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 90,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "m = np.array([[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]])\n",
    "m"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use the shape method to find the dimensions of the array. (rows, columns)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 91,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(2, 3)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 91,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "m.shape"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`arange` returns evenly spaced values within a given interval."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 92,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 0,  2,  4,  6,  8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 92,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "n = np.arange(0, 30, 2) # start at 0 count up by 2, stop before 30\n",
    "n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`reshape` returns an array with the same data with a new shape."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 93,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  2,  4,  6,  8],\n",
       "       [10, 12, 14, 16, 18],\n",
       "       [20, 22, 24, 26, 28]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 93,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "n = n.reshape(3, 5) # reshape array to be 3x5\n",
    "n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`linspace` returns evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 94,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 0. ,  0.5,  1. ,  1.5,  2. ,  2.5,  3. ,  3.5,  4. ])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 94,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "o = np.linspace(0, 4, 9) # return 9 evenly spaced values from 0 to 4\n",
    "o"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`resize` changes the shape and size of array in-place."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 95,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0. ,  0.5,  1. ],\n",
       "       [ 1.5,  2. ,  2.5],\n",
       "       [ 3. ,  3.5,  4. ]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 95,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "o.resize(3, 3)\n",
    "o"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`ones` returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 96,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 1.,  1.],\n",
       "       [ 1.,  1.],\n",
       "       [ 1.,  1.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 96,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.ones((3, 2))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`zeros` returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 97,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0.,  0.,  0.],\n",
       "       [ 0.,  0.,  0.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 97,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.zeros((2, 3))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`eye` returns a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 98,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 1.,  0.,  0.],\n",
       "       [ 0.,  1.,  0.],\n",
       "       [ 0.,  0.,  1.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 98,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.eye(3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`diag` extracts a diagonal or constructs a diagonal array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 99,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[4, 0, 0],\n",
       "       [0, 5, 0],\n",
       "       [0, 0, 6]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 99,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.diag(y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Create an array using repeating list (or see `np.tile`)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 100,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 100,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.array([1, 2, 3] * 3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Repeat elements of an array using `repeat`."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 101,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 101,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.repeat([1, 2, 3], 3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "#### Combining Arrays"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 102,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[1, 1, 1],\n",
       "       [1, 1, 1]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 102,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "p = np.ones([2, 3], int)\n",
    "p"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `vstack` to stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 103,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[1, 1, 1],\n",
       "       [1, 1, 1],\n",
       "       [2, 2, 2],\n",
       "       [2, 2, 2]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 103,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.vstack([p, 2*p])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `hstack` to stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 104,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],\n",
       "       [1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 104,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.hstack([p, 2*p])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "## Operations"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Use `+`, `-`, `*`, `/` and `**` to perform element wise addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and power."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 105,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[5 7 9]\n",
      "[-3 -3 -3]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(x + y) # elementwise addition     [1 2 3] + [4 5 6] = [5  7  9]\n",
    "print(x - y) # elementwise subtraction  [1 2 3] - [4 5 6] = [-3 -3 -3]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 106,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[ 4 10 18]\n",
      "[ 0.25  0.4   0.5 ]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(x * y) # elementwise multiplication  [1 2 3] * [4 5 6] = [4  10  18]\n",
    "print(x / y) # elementwise divison         [1 2 3] / [4 5 6] = [0.25  0.4  0.5]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 107,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1 4 9]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(x**2) # elementwise power  [1 2 3] ^2 =  [1 4 9]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "**Dot Product:**  \n",
    "\n",
    "$ \\begin{bmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3\\end{bmatrix}\n",
    "\\cdot\n",
    "\\begin{bmatrix}y_1 \\\\ y_2 \\\\ y_3\\end{bmatrix}\n",
    "= x_1 y_1 + x_2 y_2 + x_3 y_3$"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 108,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "32"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 108,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.dot(y) # dot product  1*4 + 2*5 + 3*6"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 109,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "2\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z = np.array([y, y**2])\n",
    "print(len(z)) # number of rows of array"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Let's look at transposing arrays. Transposing permutes the dimensions of the array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 110,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 4,  5,  6],\n",
       "       [16, 25, 36]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 110,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z = np.array([y, y**2])\n",
    "z"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "The shape of array `z` is `(2,3)` before transposing."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 111,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(2, 3)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 111,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z.shape"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `.T` to get the transpose."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 112,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 4, 16],\n",
       "       [ 5, 25],\n",
       "       [ 6, 36]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 112,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z.T"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "The number of rows has swapped with the number of columns."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 113,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(3, 2)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 113,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z.T.shape"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `.dtype` to see the data type of the elements in the array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 114,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dtype('int64')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 114,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z.dtype"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `.astype` to cast to a specific type."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 115,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dtype('float32')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 115,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z = z.astype('f')\n",
    "z.dtype"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "## Math Functions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Numpy has many built in math functions that can be performed on arrays."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 116,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "a = np.array([-4, -2, 1, 3, 5])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 117,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 117,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.sum()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 118,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "5"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 118,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.max()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 119,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 119,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.min()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 120,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.60"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 120,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.mean()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 121,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3.26"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 121,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.std()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`argmax` and `argmin` return the index of the maximum and minimum values in the array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 122,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 122,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.argmax()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 123,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 123,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a.argmin()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "## Indexing / Slicing"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 124,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([  0,   1,   4,   9,  16,  25,  36,  49,  64,  81, 100, 121, 144])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 124,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s = np.arange(13)**2\n",
    "s"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use bracket notation to get the value at a specific index. Remember that indexing starts at 0."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 125,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(0, 16, 144)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 125,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s[0], s[4], s[-1]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `:` to indicate a range. `array[start:stop]`\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "Leaving `start` or `stop` empty will default to the beginning/end of the array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 126,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 1,  4,  9, 16])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 126,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s[1:5]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use negatives to count from the back."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 127,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 81, 100, 121, 144])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 127,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s[-4:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "A second `:` can be used to indicate step-size. `array[start:stop:stepsize]`\n",
    "\n",
    "Here we are starting 5th element from the end, and counting backwards by 2 until the beginning of the array is reached."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 128,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([64, 36, 16,  4,  0])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 128,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s[-5::-2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Let's look at a multidimensional array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 129,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5],\n",
       "       [ 6,  7,  8,  9, 10, 11],\n",
       "       [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17],\n",
       "       [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23],\n",
       "       [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29],\n",
       "       [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 129,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r = np.arange(36)\n",
    "r.resize((6, 6))\n",
    "r"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use bracket notation to slice: `array[row, column]`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 130,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "14"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 130,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r[2, 2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "And use : to select a range of rows or columns"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 131,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([21, 22, 23])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 131,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r[3, 3:6]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Here we are selecting all the rows up to (and not including) row 2, and all the columns up to (and not including) the last column."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 132,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  1,  2,  3,  4],\n",
       "       [ 6,  7,  8,  9, 10]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 132,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r[:2, :-1]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "This is a slice of the last row, and only every other element."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 133,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([30, 32, 34])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 133,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r[-1, ::2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "We can also perform conditional indexing. Here we are selecting values from the array that are greater than 30. (Also see `np.where`)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 134,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([31, 32, 33, 34, 35])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 134,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r[r > 30]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Here we are assigning all values in the array that are greater than 30 to the value of 30."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 135,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5],\n",
       "       [ 6,  7,  8,  9, 10, 11],\n",
       "       [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17],\n",
       "       [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23],\n",
       "       [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29],\n",
       "       [30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 135,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r[r > 30] = 30\n",
    "r"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "## Copying Data"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Be careful with copying and modifying arrays in NumPy!\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "`r2` is a slice of `r`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 136,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  1,  2],\n",
       "       [ 6,  7,  8],\n",
       "       [12, 13, 14]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 136,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r2 = r[:3,:3]\n",
    "r2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Set this slice's values to zero ([:] selects the entire array)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 137,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[0, 0, 0],\n",
       "       [0, 0, 0],\n",
       "       [0, 0, 0]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 137,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r2[:] = 0\n",
    "r2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "`r` has also been changed!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 138,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  0,  0,  3,  4,  5],\n",
       "       [ 0,  0,  0,  9, 10, 11],\n",
       "       [ 0,  0,  0, 15, 16, 17],\n",
       "       [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23],\n",
       "       [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29],\n",
       "       [30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 138,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "To avoid this, use `r.copy` to create a copy that will not affect the original array"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 139,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 0,  0,  0,  3,  4,  5],\n",
       "       [ 0,  0,  0,  9, 10, 11],\n",
       "       [ 0,  0,  0, 15, 16, 17],\n",
       "       [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23],\n",
       "       [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29],\n",
       "       [30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 139,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r_copy = r.copy()\n",
    "r_copy"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Now when r_copy is modified, r will not be changed."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 140,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[10 10 10 10 10 10]\n",
      " [10 10 10 10 10 10]\n",
      " [10 10 10 10 10 10]\n",
      " [10 10 10 10 10 10]\n",
      " [10 10 10 10 10 10]\n",
      " [10 10 10 10 10 10]] \n",
      "\n",
      "[[ 0  0  0  3  4  5]\n",
      " [ 0  0  0  9 10 11]\n",
      " [ 0  0  0 15 16 17]\n",
      " [18 19 20 21 22 23]\n",
      " [24 25 26 27 28 29]\n",
      " [30 30 30 30 30 30]]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r_copy[:] = 10\n",
    "print(r_copy, '\\n')\n",
    "print(r)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "### Iterating Over Arrays"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Let's create a new 4 by 3 array of random numbers 0-9."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 141,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[1, 8, 2],\n",
       "       [4, 4, 6],\n",
       "       [4, 4, 9],\n",
       "       [5, 5, 1]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 141,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "test = np.random.randint(0, 10, (4,3))\n",
    "test"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Iterate by row:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 142,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1 8 2]\n",
      "[4 4 6]\n",
      "[4 4 9]\n",
      "[5 5 1]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for row in test:\n",
    "    print(row)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Iterate by index:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 143,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1 8 2]\n",
      "[4 4 6]\n",
      "[4 4 9]\n",
      "[5 5 1]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i in range(len(test)):\n",
    "    print(test[i])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Iterate by row and index:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 144,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "row 0 is [1 8 2]\n",
      "row 1 is [4 4 6]\n",
      "row 2 is [4 4 9]\n",
      "row 3 is [5 5 1]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i, row in enumerate(test):\n",
    "    print('row', i, 'is', row)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<br>\n",
    "Use `zip` to iterate over multiple iterables."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 145,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 1, 64,  4],\n",
       "       [16, 16, 36],\n",
       "       [16, 16, 81],\n",
       "       [25, 25,  1]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 145,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "test2 = test**2\n",
    "test2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 146,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1 8 2] + [ 1 64  4] = [ 2 72  6]\n",
      "[4 4 6] + [16 16 36] = [20 20 42]\n",
      "[4 4 9] + [16 16 81] = [20 20 90]\n",
      "[5 5 1] + [25 25  1] = [30 30  2]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i, j in zip(test, test2):\n",
    "    print(i,'+',j,'=',i+j)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
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