@@ -2073,11 +2090,15 @@ I hope this brief introduction to _gua\spi_ has whetted your appetite to learn m
|
= (subset of Word, e.g.
- ``vo''
+
+ vo
+
or
- ``zu''
+
+ zu
+
)
|
@@ -2089,11 +2110,15 @@ I hope this brief introduction to _gua\spi_ has whetted your appetite to learn m
= (subset of Word, e.g.
- ``tara''
+
+ tara
+
or
- ``crw''
+
+ crw
+
)
|
@@ -2213,7 +2238,9 @@ I hope this brief introduction to _gua\spi_ has whetted your appetite to learn m
; These add the effect of
- ``fi''
+
+ fi
+
.
|
@@ -2291,7 +2318,9 @@ I hope this brief introduction to _gua\spi_ has whetted your appetite to learn m
= `^' (choice of words such as
- ``:i''
+
+ :i
+
)
|
@@ -2356,7 +2385,7 @@ I hope this brief introduction to _gua\spi_ has whetted your appetite to learn m
* [NB2] Brown, James C. A Proposed Revision in the Structure of Loglan Words (Notebook No. 2). The Loglan Institute, Inc., Gainesville, Fla., 1982.
* [TL43] Parks-Clifford, J. Supplement to Loglan 1. \sl The Loglanist 4, 3 (Nov. 1980).
* [La] Information about _Loglan_ may be obtained from The Loglan Institute, Inc., 1701 NE 75th Street, Gainesville, FL 32601.
- * [Lja] A modernized version of _Loglan_ , much closer to the original _Loglan_ than _gua\spi_ , is _Lojban_. Information is available from The Logical Languages Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax, VA 22031, or lojbab@lojban.org. For on-line access, send a message whose body is ``index lojban'' to listserv@hebrew.cc.columbia.edu.
+ * [Lja] A modernized version of _Loglan_ , much closer to the original _Loglan_ than _gua\spi_ , is _Lojban_. Information is available from The Logical Languages Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax, VA 22031, or lojbab@lojban.org. For on-line access, send a message whose body is index lojban to listserv@hebrew.cc.columbia.edu.
* [Ga] Please contact the author at UCLA Department of Mathematics, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1555, or e-mail to jimc@math.ucla.edu.
diff --git a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/cases.md b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/cases.md
index bc00b4fb5..667ecd184 100644
--- a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/cases.md
+++ b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/cases.md
@@ -62,11 +62,11 @@ At the beginning we will use this sentence for an example:
-Please pronounce it correctly: `c' as English `ch' and `i' as `ee'. Mind the tones, lest you change it into ``the eat rats the cheese'' or some such. Since no dictionary is included with this paper, in examples where it is hard to match up the _gua\spi_ and English words the English translations are augmented with a ``pidgin'' translation using _gua\spi_ word order. The notation ``_tara_ -rat'' in examples means that _``tara''_ is the example word, and it means ``rat'' in English. Isolated words or phrases like this are written without a tone because it depends on the context where the word is used.
+Please pronounce it correctly: `c' as English `ch' and `i' as `ee'. Mind the tones, lest you change it into the eat rats the cheese or some such. Since no dictionary is included with this paper, in examples where it is hard to match up the _gua\spi_ and English words the English translations are augmented with a pidgin translation using _gua\spi_ word order. The notation _tara_ -rat in examples means that _tara_ is the example word, and it means rat in English. Isolated words or phrases like this are written without a tone because it depends on the context where the word is used.
## What is a Predicate
-Human languages generally distinguish between ``things'' and ``actions'', where an ``action'' is a relation between ``things''. The formal term for such a relation is a ``predicate''. Take for example:
+Human languages generally distinguish between things and actions, where an action is a relation between things. The formal term for such a relation is a predicate. Take for example:
>
@@ -92,11 +92,11 @@ Human languages generally distinguish between ``things'' and ``actions'', where
-``_crw_ -eats'', called a ``predicate word'', tells how the rat and the cheese are related and is a symbol for a certain predicate. The predicate is like a function whose arguments are things that might be related; the value of the function is true or false (or fuzzily in between) depending on whether or not they actually are thus related: in this sentence, whether the first actual parameter eats the second.
+_crw_ -eats, called a predicate word, tells how the rat and the cheese are related and is a symbol for a certain predicate. The predicate is like a function whose arguments are things that might be related; the value of the function is true or false (or fuzzily in between) depending on whether or not they actually are thus related: in this sentence, whether the first actual parameter eats the second.
-The formal parameters of a predicate, regarded as a function, are referred to as ``cases''. English has ``nominative'' and ``accusative'' cases (the rat occupies the nominative case and the cheese occupies the accusative case), and Latin has in addition ``genitive'', ``vocative'' and others, but _gua\spi_ simply numbers the cases. Some _gua\spi_ words have as many as five numbered cases. In our example, ``_tara_ -rat'' fills the first case of ``_crw_ -eats'' and ``_kseo_ -cheese'' fills the second.
+The formal parameters of a predicate, regarded as a function, are referred to as cases. English has nominative and accusative cases (the rat occupies the nominative case and the cheese occupies the accusative case), and Latin has in addition genitive, vocative and others, but _gua\spi_ simply numbers the cases. Some _gua\spi_ words have as many as five numbered cases. In our example, _tara_ -rat fills the first case of _crw_ -eats and _kseo_ -cheese fills the second.
-The words denoting the actual parameters of a predicate are called ``arguments''; being sub-phrases, they have their own predicate words. Here, _``!tara''_ and _``!kseo''_ are the arguments. The ``thing'' represented by an argument, which is the actual parameter of the sentence predicate, is something that can fill the first case of the argument's predicate. It is referred to as the ``referent'' of the argument. For example,
+The words denoting the actual parameters of a predicate are called arguments; being sub-phrases, they have their own predicate words. Here, _!tara_ and _!kseo_ are the arguments. The thing represented by an argument, which is the actual parameter of the sentence predicate, is something that can fill the first case of the argument's predicate. It is referred to as the referent of the argument. For example,
>
@@ -126,15 +126,15 @@ is an argument phrase; the first case is left open, and our rat (which we have s
Not every first case occupant is a referent of the argument. The rules for forming the referent subset are presented later.
-A predicate might have only one case. Some such words are actions in English, like ``_vde_ -alive'', but most are things, like ``_tara_ -rat''. By itself ``_tara_ -rat'' is an argument, and its open first case can be filled by any one of numerous rats.
+A predicate might have only one case. Some such words are actions in English, like _vde_ -alive, but most are things, like _tara_ -rat. By itself _tara_ -rat is an argument, and its open first case can be filled by any one of numerous rats.
-In literate English and most other languages a word should not be both a noun and a verb, but in _gua\spi_ any predicate word can play either role depending on cues recognized at the organizational syntax level; the grammar is the same for sentences and arguments. This unification cuts in half the complexity of the language, which is already simple. The term ``phrase'' will be used to mean either a sentence or an argument.
+In literate English and most other languages a word should not be both a noun and a verb, but in _gua\spi_ any predicate word can play either role depending on cues recognized at the organizational syntax level; the grammar is the same for sentences and arguments. This unification cuts in half the complexity of the language, which is already simple. The term phrase will be used to mean either a sentence or an argument.
## What Definitions Mean
-A predicate word expresses a relation between the occupants of its cases. In English and all natural languages, words are ``defined'' by a sentence or two; the words in those sentences are often defined circularly in terms of the word being defined. In _gua\spi_ , on the other hand, the text definition is merely a learning aid. The relation is actually defined by a set of all thus-related object lists. For example, the referent set of ``eats'' includes a member with our example rat in first case and our example cheese in second, as well as numerous other members containing rats, foods, and so on ad (almost literally) infinitum. Other predicates (such as ``pair'') have referent sets that are actually infinite.
+A predicate word expresses a relation between the occupants of its cases. In English and all natural languages, words are defined by a sentence or two; the words in those sentences are often defined circularly in terms of the word being defined. In _gua\spi_ , on the other hand, the text definition is merely a learning aid. The relation is actually defined by a set of all thus-related object lists. For example, the referent set of eats includes a member with our example rat in first case and our example cheese in second, as well as numerous other members containing rats, foods, and so on ad (almost literally) infinitum. Other predicates (such as pair) have referent sets that are actually infinite.
-Language users are not expected to be familiar with every object set that was, is now or ever shall be thus related. A big part of language behavior consists of the listener adding to his knowledge of which items are thus related, which information the speaker sends to him. Each person has his own limited experience of the world, but we speak of ``the referent set'' of a word independent of a person because words are supposed to mean the same thing to each person, that is, if a person is aware of a particular referent set member, typically he will agree with other language users which word's definition it is a member of.
+Language users are not expected to be familiar with every object set that was, is now or ever shall be thus related. A big part of language behavior consists of the listener adding to his knowledge of which items are thus related, which information the speaker sends to him. Each person has his own limited experience of the world, but we speak of the referent set of a word independent of a person because words are supposed to mean the same thing to each person, that is, if a person is aware of a particular referent set member, typically he will agree with other language users which word's definition it is a member of.
Humans are very good at generalizing from a few referent set members so as to recognize novel referents, and they are not satisfied with a word until they can do such a general recognition algorithm and usually come out with the same answers their neighbors do. But mechanical users of _gua\spi_ cannot be expected to show such skill, and neither can beginning human users such as infants. They must build up a referent set for a word by exhaustively hearing referent set members. If an advanced human, or advanced software, can transcend the official definition of _gua\spi_ words, that's fine --- a common (but risky) strategy for humans will be to use their native language as a guide to _gua\spi_ meanings. However, _gua\spi_ words are still defined officially in terms of referent sets simply because this definition is known to be tractable both for theory and for practical implementation. A _gua\spi_ referent set is perfectly suited to be represented as a Prolog database, if truncated to a practical size.
@@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ When you speak a sentence or a subordinate assertion you do the same thing: you
-your knowledge of the referent set of ``_jun_ -hunt'' includes a member which John will want to append to the ones he knows, before the cheese is stolen. This is the ultimate meaning of the _gua\spi_ sentence.
+your knowledge of the referent set of _jun_ -hunt includes a member which John will want to append to the ones he knows, before the cheese is stolen. This is the ultimate meaning of the _gua\spi_ sentence.
# Organization
@@ -200,11 +200,11 @@ Now that we have an unambiguous parse tree made up of phrases, what shall we do
## Which Words Go in Which Cases
-The tones of grammar deliver to the organizational syntax level, for each phrase, an ordered list of attached sub-phrases, which are the arguments of the phrase predicate. For example in _``!tara /crw !kseo''_ , ``_tara_ -rat'' and ``_kseo_ -cheese'' are attached to ``_crw_ -eats'' as sub-phrases and therefore are its arguments. In the simplest and most common variation the arguments fill a sentence predicate's cases in order by number, much like English and Chinese, so ``_tara_ -rat'' fills the first case of ``_crw_ -eats'' and ``_kseo_ -cheese'' fills the second. In arguments the first case is left unfilled. This organizational syntax can be so simple because the grammar delivers unambiguous lists of arguments, whereas in English or Latin a combined syntax has to deal with both getting the arguments on the right predicates and getting them into the right cases, and so is a lot more complicated.
+The tones of grammar deliver to the organizational syntax level, for each phrase, an ordered list of attached sub-phrases, which are the arguments of the phrase predicate. For example in _!tara /crw !kseo_ , _tara_ -rat and _kseo_ -cheese are attached to _crw_ -eats as sub-phrases and therefore are its arguments. In the simplest and most common variation the arguments fill a sentence predicate's cases in order by number, much like English and Chinese, so _tara_ -rat fills the first case of _crw_ -eats and _kseo_ -cheese fills the second. In arguments the first case is left unfilled. This organizational syntax can be so simple because the grammar delivers unambiguous lists of arguments, whereas in English or Latin a combined syntax has to deal with both getting the arguments on the right predicates and getting them into the right cases, and so is a lot more complicated.
The root phrase is assumed, in the absence of special cue words, to be a sentence; thus its first sub-phrase fills its first case. All sub-phrases are assumed to be arguments with empty first cases, except if they have tones or prefixed cue words that make them subordinate or infinitive clauses.
-Should it be inconvenient to have cases filled in order, _gua\spi_ has ways to change the order. First, certain prefixes signify that the relation word is ``converted'': a certain case is exchanged with the first and so brought to the front. This is most useful for arguments. For example in _``zu -crw''_ the first and second cases are exchanged, and the referent of such an argument would be something occupying the second case of ``eats'' before conversion: the meaning is ``food''. The second case after conversion would then be the eater: _``zu -crw !xo -tara''_ means ``rat food''. The most common converted meanings have words of their own, such as ``_kqu_ -food''. Here is a florid example of conversion, in which one word serves for a sentence predicate and five different argument predicates:
+Should it be inconvenient to have cases filled in order, _gua\spi_ has ways to change the order. First, certain prefixes signify that the relation word is converted: a certain case is exchanged with the first and so brought to the front. This is most useful for arguments. For example in _zu -crw_ the first and second cases are exchanged, and the referent of such an argument would be something occupying the second case of eats before conversion: the meaning is food. The second case after conversion would then be the eater: _zu -crw !xo -tara_ means rat food. The most common converted meanings have words of their own, such as _kqu_ -food. Here is a florid example of conversion, in which one word serves for a sentence predicate and five different argument predicates:
>
@@ -299,7 +299,7 @@ Should it be inconvenient to have cases filled in order, _gua\spi_ has ways to c
Definitions show the case numbers as X1, X2, etc. A caselink or a phrase-relative pronoun (described later) that pertains to a particular case finds that case wherever in the argument list it has been moved by conversion. Similarly, if there are several conversions on one predicate (not recommended) the one closest to the predicate has effect first, and the next one exchanges some case, wherever moved, with the new first sequential case.
-Second, an argument can be directed to a specific case by a ``caselink'' prefix. For example, take
+Second, an argument can be directed to a specific case by a caselink prefix. For example, take
>
@@ -326,19 +326,19 @@ Second, an argument can be directed to a specific case by a ``caselink'' prefix.
-_``qo -jan''_ is ``John''; _``qo''_ marks a foreign name. _``fer''_ = ``X1 carries X2 to X3 from X4 via X5''. Its arguments are _``qo -jan''_ in the first case, but _``se''_ links the next argument, ``_dowu_ -house'', to the fourth case: the start point. The caselink _``se''_ attaches to and is one level down from the sentence predicate _``fer''_ , hence would have falling tone. The argument predicate _``dowu''_ attaches to _``se''_ as a compound, and hence has high even tone. Sequential arguments jump over cases filled by caselinks.
+_qo -jan_ is John; _qo_ marks a foreign name. _fer_ = X1 carries X2 to X3 from X4 via X5. Its arguments are _qo -jan_ in the first case, but _se_ links the next argument, _dowu_ -house, to the fourth case: the start point. The caselink _se_ attaches to and is one level down from the sentence predicate _fer_ , hence would have falling tone. The argument predicate _dowu_ attaches to _se_ as a compound, and hence has high even tone. Sequential arguments jump over cases filled by caselinks.
-English and many other natural languages use a ``subject-verb-object'' word order with the actor first, but in _gua\spi_ the predicate can occur before, after or among the arguments. A sentence start word, or in sub-phrases some other prefix word at the same level as the predicate, will always occur before all of the arguments and will provide a jump point from which their grammatical levels can be established.
+English and many other natural languages use a subject-verb-object word order with the actor first, but in _gua\spi_ the predicate can occur before, after or among the arguments. A sentence start word, or in sub-phrases some other prefix word at the same level as the predicate, will always occur before all of the arguments and will provide a jump point from which their grammatical levels can be established.
Since listeners like subject-verb-object order you should use it when possible, but listeners also like to hear complicated phrases at the end of a sentence, and you can achieve this goal by judiciously moving the predicate, by converting it, or by delaying a complicated argument to the end of the sentence and using an explicit caselink word. In English, converting the predicate produces the ``passive voice'', which has a somewhat different meaning than the standard word order. No such passivity attaches to a converted _gua\spi_ predicate. It is a fact, though, that listeners like the actor to be first when it can be expressed in one or two words, and do not like it to be omitted --- common mistakes when people use the English passive voice.
-It is permitted to say one or more arguments in isolation. This construction is called a ``nonsentence''. It begins with the usual sentence start word _``:i''_ and the arguments, as usual, are one level down, but there just isn't any sentence predicate.
+It is permitted to say one or more arguments in isolation. This construction is called a nonsentence. It begins with the usual sentence start word _:i_ and the arguments, as usual, are one level down, but there just isn't any sentence predicate.
## Sentences as Arguments --- Infinitives
-A _gua\spi_ sentence or argument expresses a relation between specific referents, and this specific referent set member is called an ``event''. (Frequently the sentence represents several similar events.) It is common for several cases of the predicate to be vacant: in the previous example the thing carried, the destination and the route were not specified. Nonetheless there must have been a thing carried, a destination and a route, and the sentence asserts a relation between all five arguments. The next organizational elements we will look at are linking words that attach sentence predicates (with their arguments). The linked sentences represent lists of specific events with specific argument referents and with all cases filled even if not specified by words.
+A _gua\spi_ sentence or argument expresses a relation between specific referents, and this specific referent set member is called an event. (Frequently the sentence represents several similar events.) It is common for several cases of the predicate to be vacant: in the previous example the thing carried, the destination and the route were not specified. Nonetheless there must have been a thing carried, a destination and a route, and the sentence asserts a relation between all five arguments. The next organizational elements we will look at are linking words that attach sentence predicates (with their arguments). The linked sentences represent lists of specific events with specific argument referents and with all cases filled even if not specified by words.
-Returning to organization, the first sentence link word is _``vo''_ , which acts to convert a sentence into a one-argument predicate, referred to as an ``infinitive'', which means that the occupant of its first case is an instance of the sentence relation. Though _``vo''_ can itself be a sentence predicate it is much more commonly used in arguments, like this:
+Returning to organization, the first sentence link word is _vo_ , which acts to convert a sentence into a one-argument predicate, referred to as an infinitive, which means that the occupant of its first case is an instance of the sentence relation. Though _vo_ can itself be a sentence predicate it is much more commonly used in arguments, like this:
>
@@ -364,9 +364,9 @@ Returning to organization, the first sentence link word is _``vo''_ , which acts
-_``vyu''_ means ``X1 enjoys doing (_vo_) X2'', where the second case is some kind of activity --- a natural place to fill with an infinitive. The sentence linked by _``vo''_ is _``qia !ji''_ = ``I bathe'', and an instance of that relation, an event, is the referent of the argument _``vo -qia !ji''_ = ``my bath''.
+_vyu_ means X1 enjoys doing (_vo_) X2, where the second case is some kind of activity --- a natural place to fill with an infinitive. The sentence linked by _vo_ is _qia !ji_ = ``I bathe'', and an instance of that relation, an event, is the referent of the argument _vo -qia !ji_ = my bath.
-_``vyu''_ includes the prefix _``vo''_ on its second case by default, as do all words which commonly have infinitive arguments. Also, such words have various patterns, specified in the dictionary, in which main sentence arguments are replicated into infinitives. The most common is for the argument just before the infinitive to be replicated into the infinitive's first case, if the infinitive has no argument caselinked into the first case with _``so''_. Here _``!ji''_ is replicated. So you could say
+_vyu_ includes the prefix _vo_ on its second case by default, as do all words which commonly have infinitive arguments. Also, such words have various patterns, specified in the dictionary, in which main sentence arguments are replicated into infinitives. The most common is for the argument just before the infinitive to be replicated into the infinitive's first case, if the infinitive has no argument caselinked into the first case with _so_. Here _!ji_ is replicated. So you could say
>
@@ -396,10 +396,10 @@ The extensive defaults on structure words, of which the default _vo_ is one of t
## Subordinate Clauses
-A subordinate clause, indicated by the linking prefix _``vu''_ , is a sentence within a sentence. Its most common use is to restrict a phrase (an argument or a sentence), so that a thing can be a referent of an argument only if it actually fits in the subordinate sentence, or the main sentence represents only events that fit in the subordinate sentence. Subordinate clauses are more common in _gua\spi_ than in English, and also can be complicated, so several special rules are provided to make them simpler:
+A subordinate clause, indicated by the linking prefix _vu_ , is a sentence within a sentence. Its most common use is to restrict a phrase (an argument or a sentence), so that a thing can be a referent of an argument only if it actually fits in the subordinate sentence, or the main sentence represents only events that fit in the subordinate sentence. Subordinate clauses are more common in _gua\spi_ than in English, and also can be complicated, so several special rules are provided to make them simpler:
- * Because subordinate clauses are so common the tone `|' is allocated specifically to them which automatically supplies the linking prefix _``vu''_. When this tone does not apply, of course, _``vu''_ may be used explicitly.
- * When the predicate of a subordinate clause has a case for an event, indicated by default _``vo''_ or _``bi''_ , the predicate is automatically converted to put the event first.
+ * Because subordinate clauses are so common the tone `|' is allocated specifically to them which automatically supplies the linking prefix _vu_. When this tone does not apply, of course, _vu_ may be used explicitly.
+ * When the predicate of a subordinate clause has a case for an event, indicated by default _vo_ or _bi_ , the predicate is automatically converted to put the event first.
* The restricted phrase is automatically replicated in the first case of the clause which, if the previous rule applies, will be the event argument.
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ Here is a subordinate clause restricting an argument:
-Not all apples (_ftu -plyw_) but only those which are green (_xgi_) are described as being sour (_qke_). The restricting sentence is ``X1 is green'', and argument referents (apples) are automatically plugged into X1. The second version of the sentence is re-ordered to sound better; subordinate clauses usually do better near the end of the sentence. When in English we use adjectives and adverbs, in _gua\spi_ we usually use subordinate clauses like this one.
+Not all apples (_ftu -plyw_) but only those which are green (_xgi_) are described as being sour (_qke_). The restricting sentence is X1 is green, and argument referents (apples) are automatically plugged into X1. The second version of the sentence is re-ordered to sound better; subordinate clauses usually do better near the end of the sentence. When in English we use adjectives and adverbs, in _gua\spi_ we usually use subordinate clauses like this one.
Here is a subordinate clause restricting a sentence:
@@ -468,11 +468,11 @@ Here is a subordinate clause restricting a sentence:
-The restricting sentence is _``!vo -X1 /zu -tum !vden !xdro''_ = ``[X1 is done] with its teeth as a tool'', and the asserted relation _``!tara /cie -pne !kara''_ = ``The rat penetrates the box'' is also required to satisfy the subordinate clause. The effect is as if an additional case were added to ``_cie_ -cut'' for the cutting tool. Note that _``tum''_ auto-converts so that _``zu''_ is not needed in the subordinate clause.
+The restricting sentence is _!vo -X1 /zu -tum !vden !xdro_ = [X1 is done] with its teeth as a tool, and the asserted relation _!tara /cie -pne !kara_ = The rat penetrates the box is also required to satisfy the subordinate clause. The effect is as if an additional case were added to _cie_ -cut for the cutting tool. Note that _tum_ auto-converts so that _zu_ is not needed in the subordinate clause.
-The additional cases produced by subordinate clauses like this are called ``modal cases''. They specify tenses, locations, listeners (vocative case), speakers in dialogue, repeated actions, and numerous miscellaneous cases as in the previous sentence. These cases are the ``context'' of a sentence. _Gua\spi_ handles the context in a well-defined manner, whereas other languages handle context informally. As with numbered cases, something must fill every modal case in each event even if no words specify what that thing is. For example, many events are done ``by means of'' something, though rarely do we put words to the instrument. Many predicates in the language can give rise to modal cases. Therefore a predicate potentially can have a near-infinite number of cases.
+The additional cases produced by subordinate clauses like this are called modal cases. They specify tenses, locations, listeners (vocative case), speakers in dialogue, repeated actions, and numerous miscellaneous cases as in the previous sentence. These cases are the context of a sentence. _Gua\spi_ handles the context in a well-defined manner, whereas other languages handle context informally. As with numbered cases, something must fill every modal case in each event even if no words specify what that thing is. For example, many events are done by means of something, though rarely do we put words to the instrument. Many predicates in the language can give rise to modal cases. Therefore a predicate potentially can have a near-infinite number of cases.
-_Gua\spi_ has two other clause link words: _``va''_ for subordinate assertions and _``vi''_ for decorations that show the relation between sentences and the speaker's attitude about a sentence. Their syntax is the same as _``vu''_. For example (_go_ being a mood marker for negation),
+_Gua\spi_ has two other clause link words: _va_ for subordinate assertions and _vi_ for decorations that show the relation between sentences and the speaker's attitude about a sentence. Their syntax is the same as _vu_. For example (_go_ being a mood marker for negation),
>
@@ -509,7 +509,7 @@ _Gua\spi_ has two other clause link words: _``va''_ for subordinate assertions a
-In ``_tan_ -annoy'' of the second sentence, who is annoyed? ``_ji_ -me'' is provided by default in the first case (before conversion) of any subordinate clause or top-level sentence whose first case ends up vacant, like this one. Thus top-level exclamations also become more natural:
+In _tan_ -annoy of the second sentence, who is annoyed? _ji_ -me is provided by default in the first case (before conversion) of any subordinate clause or top-level sentence whose first case ends up vacant, like this one. Thus top-level exclamations also become more natural:
>
@@ -574,7 +574,9 @@ A special argument form is quoted text. A quote is a prefix that transforms the
- ``Shit''
+
+ Shit
+
is unsuitable to be said at school
|
@@ -605,7 +607,9 @@ A special argument form is quoted text. A quote is a prefix that transforms the
He/she cried,
- ``I want (to be in contact with) my mother''
+
+ I want (to be in contact with) my mother
+
|
@@ -685,7 +689,9 @@ A special argument form is quoted text. A quote is a prefix that transforms the
, up to endmark
- ``ba''
+
+ ba
+
@@ -703,7 +709,9 @@ A special argument form is quoted text. A quote is a prefix that transforms the
Captain Kirk said,
- ``C'est la vie''
+
+ C'est la vie
+
|
@@ -734,7 +742,9 @@ A special argument form is quoted text. A quote is a prefix that transforms the
Hamlet said,
- ``To be or not to be . . .''
+
+ To be or not to be . . .
+
|
@@ -744,9 +754,9 @@ A special argument form is quoted text. A quote is a prefix that transforms the
-The last example, the ``slash string'' quote _``br''_ , is the same as _``ba''_ except that an arbitrary word (_``xa''_ in the example) comes before and after the quoted text, in case _``be''_ cannot be the endmark because it occurs in the text. _``ba''_ and _``br''_ are actually interpreted as part of the grammar, as very special cases, while the rest are recognized at the organizational level.
+The last example, the slash string quote _br_ , is the same as _ba_ except that an arbitrary word (_xa_ in the example) comes before and after the quoted text, in case _be_ cannot be the endmark because it occurs in the text. _ba_ and _br_ are actually interpreted as part of the grammar, as very special cases, while the rest are recognized at the organizational level.
-Story dialog is represented by quoted sub-phrases in English, but in _gua\spi_ the dialog is at the main level and the speaker and listener are identified by a modal case with ``_jai_ -say'', ``_kam_ -cry'' and related words. These words are defined as ``X1 says text (_bi_) X2 to X3'', with _``bi''_ as the default prefix. Since _``bi''_ is an infinitive prefix, _``jai''_ automatically converts in a modal phrase so the sentence is first. For example,
+Story dialog is represented by quoted sub-phrases in English, but in _gua\spi_ the dialog is at the main level and the speaker and listener are identified by a modal case with _jai_ -say, _kam_ -cry and related words. These words are defined as X1 says text (_bi_) X2 to X3, with _bi_ as the default prefix. Since _bi_ is an infinitive prefix, _jai_ automatically converts in a modal phrase so the sentence is first. For example,
>
@@ -764,7 +774,10 @@ Story dialog is represented by quoted sub-phrases in English, but in _gua\spi_ t
- Captain Kirk said to Helmsman Sulu, ``Activate warp engines''
+ Captain Kirk said to Helmsman Sulu,
+
+ Activate warp engines
+
|
diff --git a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/conclusn.md b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/conclusn.md
index cc2fbec14..59f79c5a4 100644
--- a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/conclusn.md
+++ b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/conclusn.md
@@ -137,11 +137,15 @@ For computer applications the normal way to represent _gua\spi_ syntax is in a s
= (subset of Word, e.g.
- ``vo''
+
+ vo
+
or
- ``zu''
+
+ zu
+
)
|
@@ -153,11 +157,15 @@ For computer applications the normal way to represent _gua\spi_ syntax is in a s
= (subset of Word, e.g.
- ``tara''
+
+ tara
+
or
- ``crw''
+
+ crw
+
)
|
@@ -277,7 +285,9 @@ For computer applications the normal way to represent _gua\spi_ syntax is in a s
; These add the effect of
- ``fi''
+
+ fi
+
.
|
@@ -355,7 +365,9 @@ For computer applications the normal way to represent _gua\spi_ syntax is in a s
= `^' (choice of words such as
- ``:i''
+
+ :i
+
)
|
@@ -413,18 +425,18 @@ For computer applications the normal way to represent _gua\spi_ syntax is in a s
-``Discourse'' is the root grameme. Grammar for quoted non-_gua\spi_ text is not shown, but foreign predicates and quoted _gua\spi_ are processed by this grammar and are put together at the organizational syntax level.
+Discourse is the root grameme. Grammar for quoted non-_gua\spi_ text is not shown, but foreign predicates and quoted _gua\spi_ are processed by this grammar and are put together at the organizational syntax level.
## Organizational Transformations
Formal syntax is finished at this point, and transformation begins, in this sequence of steps:
- * Transform the tone `|' into ``_!vu_ -subordinate clause''.
+ * Transform the tone `|' into _!vu_ -subordinate clause.
* Do the transformations for retroactive downjumps and for error correction (_fa_).
- * Distinguish arguments from sentences. Insert _``!so -jy''_ as the placeholder for arguments' open first cases.
+ * Distinguish arguments from sentences. Insert _!so -jy_ as the placeholder for arguments' open first cases.
* Re-order argument lists according to caselinks and conversions. Insert placeholders for missing cases.
- * Look up each word in the dictionary. Insert default articles, typically ``_xe_ -the'', before arguments. Insert default _``vo''_.
- * In cases of compounding, replicate argument lists for parallel arguments; insert _``vo''_ for compound infinitives; or demote a compound object into the argument list.
+ * Look up each word in the dictionary. Insert default articles, typically _xe_ -the, before arguments. Insert default _vo_.
+ * In cases of compounding, replicate argument lists for parallel arguments; insert _vo_ for compound infinitives; or demote a compound object into the argument list.
* Replicate main phrase arguments into infinitives.
* Substitute the antecedents for phrase-relative, modal and question pronouns. The antecedent of a question pronoun is found in the future answer.
* Deal with modal case stack operations.
@@ -447,7 +459,7 @@ I hope this brief introduction to _gua\spi_ has whetted your appetite to learn m
* [NB2] Brown, James C. A Proposed Revision in the Structure of Loglan Words (Notebook No. 2). The Loglan Institute, Inc., Gainesville, Fla., 1982.
* [TL43] Parks-Clifford, J. Supplement to Loglan 1. \sl The Loglanist 4, 3 (Nov. 1980).
* [La] Information about _Loglan_ may be obtained from The Loglan Institute, Inc., 1701 NE 75th Street, Gainesville, FL 32601.
- * [Lja] A modernized version of _Loglan_ , much closer to the original _Loglan_ than _gua\spi_ , is _Lojban_. Information is available from The Logical Languages Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax, VA 22031, or lojbab@lojban.org. For on-line access, send a message whose body is ``index lojban'' to listserv@hebrew.cc.columbia.edu.
+ * [Lja] A modernized version of _Loglan_ , much closer to the original _Loglan_ than _gua\spi_ , is _Lojban_. Information is available from The Logical Languages Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax, VA 22031, or lojbab@lojban.org. For on-line access, send a message whose body is index lojban to listserv@hebrew.cc.columbia.edu.
* [Ga] Please contact the author at UCLA Department of Mathematics, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1555, or e-mail to jimc@math.ucla.edu.
diff --git a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/dictintr.md b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/dictintr.md
index 4d4912309..177bb3a58 100644
--- a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/dictintr.md
+++ b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/dictintr.md
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
This is the dictionary of the _gua\spi_ language. It is organized into three parts in which words are ordered by _gua\spi_ spelling (with morphological formats in separate sections), by the English translation, and by thesaurus categories. The table of contents also serves as an outline of the categories.
-This edition includes only primitive words of _gua\spi_. Only a few compound words appear. A future project will be to go through a list of the N most common English words and either to verify that each one has a primitive translation or to recommend a compound representation of it. Note the word ``recommend''. The speaker of _gua\spi_ is expected to represent his meaning by compounding primitive words creatively, and the architect of _gua\spi_ does not insist on particular compound words to translate particular English words.
+This edition includes only primitive words of _gua\spi_. Only a few compound words appear. A future project will be to go through a list of the N most common English words and either to verify that each one has a primitive translation or to recommend a compound representation of it. Note the word recommend. The speaker of _gua\spi_ is expected to represent his meaning by compounding primitive words creatively, and the architect of _gua\spi_ does not insist on particular compound words to translate particular English words.
But since the vocabulary of English is so vast, even the working vocabulary of an educated person, most English words will never be in this dictionary. Here is where the thesaurus can help. Look at the primitive words in the category where your meaning is, and try to modify one of them by compounding to achieve the meaning you want.
@@ -18,20 +18,20 @@ To get the most use out of _gua\spi_ you have to know all the primitive words. F
Be sure to remember that _gua\spi_ predicates can be converted. The English word used in the definition is the one most representative of the unconverted _gua\spi_ case order, but by conversion you can get up to four additional English meanings.
-In one trial of _Loglan_ about half of the predicates were compound, and likely more will be compound in _gua\spi_. Be alert for creative opportunities for expression --- don't use only the words identified as being ``common in compounds''. But resist the temptation to specify a predicate over-precisely with many compounded words; one thinks differently in _gua\spi_ , and mashing _gua\spi_ words to fit English preconceptions does not give the best results.
+In one trial of _Loglan_ about half of the predicates were compound, and likely more will be compound in _gua\spi_. Be alert for creative opportunities for expression --- don't use only the words identified as being common in compounds. But resist the temptation to specify a predicate over-precisely with many compounded words; one thinks differently in _gua\spi_ , and mashing _gua\spi_ words to fit English preconceptions does not give the best results.
Acronyms, so popular in illiterate English, are useless in _gua\spi_ because the letterals of the acronym are longer than the compound word or phrase that they abbreviate. Again, keep the compound short.
-An example of a definition is ``X1 likes to do (vo) X2+1''. The symbols X1 and X2 represent the first and second numbered cases of the predicate ``like''. Words in parentheses before the case symbols, such as ``(vo)'', are provided by default before that argument unless there is an explicit article there --- which cancels both the default article and the default phrase linker if any. All arguments receive _``xe''_ as a prefixed article by default, unless a different article is shown in the dictionary or is said explicitly. Signs following the case numbers indicate special features of compound words and case merging in infinitives. Here they are illustrated decorating the second case, but the same pattern applies for all cases.
+An example of a definition is X1 likes to do o X2+1. The symbols X1 and X2 represent the first and second numbered cases of the predicate like. Words in parentheses before the case symbols, such as o, are provided by default before that argument unless there is an explicit article there --- which cancels both the default article and the default phrase linker if any. All arguments receive _xe_ as a prefixed article by default, unless a different article is shown in the dictionary or is said explicitly. Signs following the case numbers indicate special features of compound words and case merging in infinitives. Here they are illustrated decorating the second case, but the same pattern applies for all cases.
X2*
In a transitive compound (tone `='), this is the case where the object goes. It is the second case by default (but the dictionary even so shows many X2*'s explicitly).
X2+1
- In an infinitive compound (tone `-'), this is the case where the infinitive goes. Note that a few words do not do infinitive compounds (they do parallel compounds instead) even though they have a case for an infinitive. All cases of these words lack `+' or have `@'. The `1' selects the first case of the main predicate. This argument is replicated as the first case of the infinitive (whether explicit or from a compound). The notation ``+1,2'' means that referents from both cases are replicated. A `+' alone signals infinitive compounding but with no case replication.
+ In an infinitive compound (tone `-'), this is the case where the infinitive goes. Note that a few words do not do infinitive compounds (they do parallel compounds instead) even though they have a case for an infinitive. All cases of these words lack `+' or have `@'. The `1' selects the first case of the main predicate. This argument is replicated as the first case of the infinitive (whether explicit or from a compound). The notation +1,2 means that referents from both cases are replicated. A `+' alone signals infinitive compounding but with no case replication.
X2-3
Usually used with a `+' decoration, the -3 means that the third case of the main predicate is replicated as the second case of the infinitive.
X2+S1
- The `S' means that, X1 normally being a set, its members are replicated in extension into the first case of the infinitive. ``-S1'' is also used for the infinitive second case.
+ The `S' means that, X1 normally being a set, its members are replicated in extension into the first case of the infinitive. -S1 is also used for the infinitive second case.
X2+P1
The `P' means that the infinitive is applied pairwise to members of the first case set, as in sorting or finding an extreme member.
X2+1@
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ Here are the types of compounds. See the reference manual for a complete explana
Infinitive
The second word is the predicate of an infinitive in one of the first word's cases. (Tone `-'.)
Parallel
- Both words share the same arguments so both relations are simultaneously true of each argument list. (Tone `-', or _``-fe''_ if an infinitive compound would supervene.)
+ Both words share the same arguments so both relations are simultaneously true of each argument list. (Tone `-', or _-fe_ if an infinitive compound would supervene.)
Transitive
The second word is the predicate of an argument in one of the first word's cases, the second case unless otherwise noted. (Tone `='.)
diff --git a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/grammar.md b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/grammar.md
index bc2a79079..4503475a8 100644
--- a/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/grammar.md
+++ b/data/pages/en/resources/guaspi/grammar.md
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ Organization
Semantics
Giving meaning to syntactic structures.
-Natural language syntax is extremely complicated because the syntax expresses actual meanings such as tenses and numbers. In _gua\spi_ the first three levels are independent of the meaning of the words. This makes them less interesting than jewels like the ``perfective aspect'' of Russian or the ``long object case'' of Navajo, but it makes them much simpler and much easier to learn and use.
+Natural language syntax is extremely complicated because the syntax expresses actual meanings such as tenses and numbers. In _gua\spi_ the first three levels are independent of the meaning of the words. This makes them less interesting than jewels like the perfective aspect of Russian or the long object case of Navajo, but it makes them much simpler and much easier to learn and use.
# Morphology: What is a Word
@@ -455,13 +455,13 @@ Phonemes can be distinguished by where the tongue is placed to make them, whethe
-> Table 2 [Pronunciation]. How to pronounce _gua\spi_ phonemes. Nonstandard C's are shown; C's without examples are as in English. Standard radio broadcast accent is close to correct for the V's; Spanish is closer. Pronounce the vowels as one sound, not a glide between two sounds as in ``eye''.
+> Table 2 [Pronunciation]. How to pronounce _gua\spi_ phonemes. Nonstandard C's are shown; C's without examples are as in English. Standard radio broadcast accent is close to correct for the V's; Spanish is closer. Pronounce the vowels as one sound, not a glide between two sounds as in eye.
* * *
-The sound `#' or `uh' is common in English; all vowel letters are sometimes pronounced `#'. The `a' of ``among'' is a good example. This sound is called ``schwa''; that German name is pronounced (with _gua\spi_ letters) ``sqv#''. `#' is not used in regular words; its purpose is to break up CC pairs that a particular speaker finds hard to pronounce, since virtually all speakers will be able to handle C#C. It is to be ignored and it is only written in explanations like this one. Though normally considered a vowel, it is in the C class because it occurs among C's, and a word is defined as some C's followed by some V's.
+The sound `#' or `uh' is common in English; all vowel letters are sometimes pronounced `#'. The `a' of among is a good example. This sound is called schwa; that German name is pronounced (with _gua\spi_ letters) sqv#. `#' is not used in regular words; its purpose is to break up CC pairs that a particular speaker finds hard to pronounce, since virtually all speakers will be able to handle C#C. It is to be ignored and it is only written in explanations like this one. Though normally considered a vowel, it is in the C class because it occurs among C's, and a word is defined as some C's followed by some V's.
-The glottal stop `:' pronounced alone is a sudden (plosive) `#', but it is normally followed by a V so that it sounds like a brief pause after which the V comes on. In many English dialects, as in _gua\spi_ , it is found between a vowel-final and vowel-initial word, like ``the:apple'', while the Cockney dialect uses it much more extensively. The glottal stop is not used in regular words; its place is at the beginning of each sentence start word, and in vowel-initial foreign words.
+The glottal stop `:' pronounced alone is a sudden (plosive) `#', but it is normally followed by a V so that it sounds like a brief pause after which the V comes on. In many English dialects, as in _gua\spi_ , it is found between a vowel-final and vowel-initial word, like the:apple, while the Cockney dialect uses it much more extensively. The glottal stop is not used in regular words; its place is at the beginning of each sentence start word, and in vowel-initial foreign words.
English has thirteen subtly different vowels plus four official diphthongs but only five letters to represent them. _Gua\spi_ uses only six easily distinguished vowel sounds, recruiting Y for one of them, and adds some vowel-like sounds which are considered consonants in English. Unfortunately, many regional accents of English turn simple vowels into diphthongs, invalidating the example words given in [Table 2 [Pronuncation]](grammar.html#Pronunciation). Other accents transform sounds beyond the bounds that a _gua\spi_ speaker can recognize. If you speak with a regional accent, please use the vowel sounds that you can hear on television or radio (American or British will both work). Particularly troublesome examples, rendered with _gua\spi_ letters, are shown in this table:
@@ -522,7 +522,11 @@ English has thirteen subtly different vowels plus four official diphthongs but o
f%thA
- (% represents `a' in ``cat'')
+ (% represents `a' in
+
+ cat
+
+ )
|