diff --git a/01-foreword.Rmd b/00-preface.Rmd similarity index 90% rename from 01-foreword.Rmd rename to 00-preface.Rmd index ea1139f..50f5250 100644 --- a/01-foreword.Rmd +++ b/00-preface.Rmd @@ -1,13 +1,21 @@ -# Foreword {-} +```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} +is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") +is_online <- curl::has_internet() +is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() +is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() +``` -### Content Warning {-} +# Preface {-} + +[An archived version of this book is available on Zenodo](https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4850406). + +## Content Warning {-} This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers. - -### Land Acknowledgment {-} +## Land Acknowledgment {-} This work's impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America -- the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima. @@ -19,13 +27,13 @@ I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and ple I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear. -### Inherent Bias {-} +## Inherent Bias {-} This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if "legally required"), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered. -### Author Position {-} +## Author Position {-} I, [Dr. Juniper L. Simonis](https://juniperlsimonis.com) (_they/them/theirs_), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcement's chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment. @@ -41,17 +49,17 @@ Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a d I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people. -### Financial Statement {-} +## Financial Statement {-} All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. No external funding was provided. -### Licenses {-} +## Licenses {-} This book it created under a [dual license](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/blob/main/LICENSE.md) that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the [References](#References) and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors. -### Acknowledgments {-} +## Acknowledgments {-} My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobby's murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. @@ -68,8 +76,10 @@ Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images. Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the [Lawrence High School](#Lawrence1970_04_21) protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful. +Christophe Dervieux provided an example of how to render figure alt-text in an appendix: https://cderv.rbind.io/2021/06/29/fig-alt-appendix/. + The cover image is based on @Lewis-Rolland2021a. -### Contribute Information {-} +## Contribute Information {-} If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out [via the Chem Weapons Research Website](https://chemicalweaponsresearch.com/contact/) or submit an [issue](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/issues/new/choose) or [pull request](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/compare) on our [GitHub repository for the book](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/02-introduction.Rmd b/01-introduction.Rmd similarity index 99% rename from 02-introduction.Rmd rename to 01-introduction.Rmd index 4eecbc3..baef2ae 100644 --- a/02-introduction.Rmd +++ b/01-introduction.Rmd @@ -70,3 +70,4 @@ Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of common chemical contemporary chemic As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixtures are likely to have considerably higher toxicities than product labels and safety sheets indicate, which are already concerning [@defteccs]. + diff --git a/03-vietnam.Rmd b/02-vietnam.Rmd similarity index 99% rename from 03-vietnam.Rmd rename to 02-vietnam.Rmd index 1863b9d..9eb8b86 100644 --- a/03-vietnam.Rmd +++ b/02-vietnam.Rmd @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ if (is_html) { ``` -# Vietnam {- #Vietnam} +# A Colonial Tool {- #Vietnam} The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century [@USMACV1965; @Bunker1996]. diff --git a/04-the_return.Rmd b/03-return.Rmd similarity index 99% rename from 04-the_return.Rmd rename to 03-return.Rmd index bdf823e..eb6a776 100644 --- a/04-the_return.Rmd +++ b/03-return.Rmd @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ if (is_html) { ``` -# The Return {- #TheReturn} +# Domestic Applications {- #TheReturn} As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang [@Cesaire1950; @Arendt1951; @Foucault1976], the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people [@Graham2013]. diff --git a/06-the_spread.Rmd b/04-conventions.Rmd similarity index 55% rename from 06-the_spread.Rmd rename to 04-conventions.Rmd index e793509..001cea3 100644 --- a/06-the_spread.Rmd +++ b/04-conventions.Rmd @@ -14,13 +14,81 @@ if (is_html) { ``` -# Coming Soon To A Town Near You! {-} +# The 1968 Conventions {- #The1968Conventions} + +Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions [@McArdle2018; @TaylorandMorris2018]. +As a result of a [heavy propaganda and branding campaign](#TheReturn), the thermal fogger was just becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. +Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. + +Beyond their legacy as the first domestic fogger deployments, the lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come. +The Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids [@Hudson1976]. + +## Miami, August 8 {- #MiamiFL1968_08_08} + +The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the "[Liberty City Riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Miami_riot)", which took place in during the [1968 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention) (RNC) in Miami, Florida [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996; @McArdle2018]. +A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. +When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a "Wallace for President" bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. + +Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. +Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. +Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city [@Tschenschlok1995]. + +FHP used a truck with multiple foggers [@Lorentzen2018], described as "essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine" that "spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone" [@Tschenschlok1995]. + +FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old [@McArdle2018]. +The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air [@Tschenschlok1995]. + + +## Chicago, August 26 - 29 {- #ChicagoIL1968_08_26} + +Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the [Democratic National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention), and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops [@TaylorandMorris2018]) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news [@Schultz1969; @Karnow1983; @Farber1988; @Langguth2000]. +After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons [@TaylorandMorris2018]. + +Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in [Berkeley the year later](#BerkeleyCA1969_02_21) states + +> A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - @TheDailyTribune1969_02_21 + +As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. +I am continuing to search for evidence. + + +## Berkeley, August 31 {- #BerkeleyCA1968_08_31} + +A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31; @TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31], including [use of a pepper fogger](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26) [@TheDailyTribune1969_02_21]. +In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a "new police weapon... which produced a gas that caused sneezing" [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]. + +
+ +(ref:imgberkeley19680831) Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA [@UPIphoto1968]. + +```{r imgberkeley19680831, echo=FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap="(ref:imgberkeley19680831)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W newspaper clipping. To left is an officer wearing long pants, long sleeved shirt, and a helmet walking forward carrying a fogger in the right hand. The fogger is blowing fog through a tube and a cloud is forming. Background is a storefront window and door. To the right 2 people are moving away from the fog, leaning on one another, and covering their faces with their hands."} + +knitr::include_graphics("img/berkeley_1968_08_31.png") +``` + + +Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]; Hanford, California [@TheHanfordSentinel1968_08_31]; Honolulu, Hawaii [@TheHonoluluAdvertiser1968_09_01]; St. Louis, Missouri [@StLouisPostDispatch1968_08_31]; Franklin, Pennsylvania [@TheNewsHerald1968_08_31]; Madison, Wisconsin [@TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31]; and El Paso, Texas [@ElPasoHeraldPost1968_08_31], a city whose significance was already budding. + +It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a [GOEC](#GOEC) brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior [@USTPO2018]. +The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name ("Pepper Fog") for another year [@USTPO2018]. + +
+ +(ref:imggoecpf) Product image for thermal fogger [@GOECphoto]. + +```{r imggoecpf, echo=FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap="(ref:imggoecpf)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary pepper fog thermal fogger pointed to the left sitting by itself. The main body is a square box that's dark with a tag in the middle that's lighter and has dark writing on it that says pepper fog g o e c. The nozzle points to the left and is a longer thinner tube about twice as long as the main body. It is also dark and has a metal cage around it that is sparse and shiny. There's also a handle and some knobs on the top of the item and something that's a little bit difficult to make out off the back of the main body."} + +knitr::include_graphics("img/goec_pf.png") +``` + +
+ + +## Coming Soon To A Town Near You! {-} Following the conventions, the fogger quickly became a part of the law enforcement arsenal. US police had a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out across the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s [@PlainDealer1971]. -## From the Conventions Outward {-} - ### Illinois {-} In the wake of the [1968 Democratic National Convention](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26), Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. @@ -71,11 +139,11 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/CopleyNewsService1970.jpg")
-## National Guard {-} +### National Guard {-} Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of "less lethal" options [@Bandy1970]. -## Small Town USA {-} +### Small Town USA {-} No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; @USCB1970) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 [@BoxElderAgencies1971]. @@ -113,7 +181,7 @@ The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; @USCB1970) purchased a fogger in 1971 in a The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers "on occasion" in Des Moines (Iowa's capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; @USCB1970) in addition to [one instance on the University of Iowa's campus](#IowaCity) [@DesMoinesTribune1975_05_06], although I have not located contemporaneous mentions. -## Crossing to Canada {- #Canada} +### Crossing to Canada {- #Canada} Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use [@Patterson1976]. A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers [@Patterson1976]. diff --git a/07-universities.Rmd b/05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd similarity index 76% rename from 07-universities.Rmd rename to 05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd index 43a85b0..2797a4d 100644 --- a/07-universities.Rmd +++ b/05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd @@ -12,14 +12,18 @@ if (is_html) { ``` -# University Cities {-} +# Scholastic Endeavors {-} Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in [Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests](#BerkeleyCA1968_08_31), many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons. The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when [Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel](#CollegeParkMD1970_05_04) [@Cabe1970]. +Use of fogger-based chemical weapons against students, particularly students of color, was not limited to college campuses, but extended to high and middle schools. -## Durham {-} + +## University Cities {-} + +### Durham {-} Durham North Carolina Police broke up the "Allen Building Demonstration" taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger [@DMH1969; @Schreiberetal1971a; @Schreiberetal1971b]. The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel [@Schreiberetal1971a; @Schreiberetal1971b]. @@ -36,7 +40,7 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/durham_1969_02_13_1.jpg")
-(ref:imgdurham196902132) Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus [@DMH1969]. +(ref:imgdurham196902132) Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus [@DMH1969]. ```{r imgdurham196902132, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgdurham196902132)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W Image: Background has brick building with steps. In front of the building from center to right, a line of 5 police officers facing front and wearing helmets & gas masks holding slim white clubs about a yard long. They are standing with legs apart and clubs in both hands in front of their bodies. On the left 5 officers similarly dressed, facing towards one another. Four slim clubs are visible, and one officer is holding what appears to be a fogger in one arm hanging down at the side."} @@ -47,7 +51,7 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/durham_1969_02_13_2.jpg") -## Berkeley {-} +### Berkeley {-} #### February 21 1969 {- #BerkeleyCA1969_02_21} @@ -122,14 +126,14 @@ The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this t knitr::include_graphics("img/gasjeep.JPEG") ``` -## Seattle {-} +### Seattle {-} Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with "hundreds of unruly youths in the University District" on August 14 1969 [@StatesmanJournal1969_08_17]. Witnesses recounted that the machine was "highly effective", filling "2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute" [@StatesmanJournal1969_08_17]. -## College Park {- #CollegeParkMD1970_05_04} +### College Park {- #CollegeParkMD1970_05_04} On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixon's expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park [@WAS2013]. Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus [@Cabe1970]. @@ -169,7 +173,7 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/MSP.jpg")
-## Iowa City {- #IowaCity} +### Iowa City {- #IowaCity} Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 [@Eckholt1971]. @@ -177,7 +181,7 @@ The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as -## Minneapolis {- #Minneapolis1972_05_10} +### Minneapolis {- #Minneapolis1972_05_10} Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11a]. In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11b; @StarTribune1972_05_11]. @@ -185,8 +189,57 @@ In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) [@StarTribune1972_05_11]. -## Gainesville {-} +### Gainesville {-} Similarly to the anti-mine protests in [Minneapolis](#Minneapolis1972_05_10), on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed "The Monster" which "spewed tear gas" [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11b]. Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first [deployed thermal foggers via a truck](Liberty City #MiamiFL1968_08_08) in 1968 [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. + + + +## High Schools {-} + +As soon as they laid their hands on foggers, law enforcement extended their use from [universities]{#Universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. + +I will stop to repeat that again so that we (myself included) can all reflect on this. + +Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to [gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels](#Vietnam). + +### San Gordonio {- #SanGordonio} + +Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) [@TheDeltaDemocratTimes1969_11_20] on November 20, 1969 references a "recent" use of the fogger on students. + + +(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx) Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School [@UPIphoto1969]. + +```{r imgsanbernardino1969xxxx, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W faded image: To the left is a person wearing a uniform with a patch on the shoulder and a helmet. In their right hand is the nozzle to a fogger and it appears to be emitting fog. There is a white fog cloud covering most of the rest of the image."} +knitr::include_graphics("img/san_bernardino_1969_xx_xx.jpg") +``` + +
+ +Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. +On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a "major racial confrontation" among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus [@Yetzeretal1971]. + + + +### Lawrence {- #Lawrence1970_04_21} + +Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members [@Monhollon2002]. +The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards [@Monhollon2002]. + +Black students had occuppied the principal's office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school [@Monhollon2002]. +Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers [@Monhollon2002]. +The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout [@Monhollon2002]. + +The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the [GOEC Pepper Fog](#GOEC) fogger: + +
+ +(ref:imglawrence19700421) Police bring a [GOEC](#GOEC) pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School [@UKA1970]. + +```{r imglawrence19700421, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imglawrence19700421)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger."} +knitr::include_graphics("img/lawrence_1970_04_21.jpg") +``` + +
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/05-the_conventions.Rmd b/05-the_conventions.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index 7864b9a..0000000 --- a/05-the_conventions.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,82 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# The 1968 Conventions {- #The1968Conventions} - -Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions [@McArdle2018; @TaylorandMorris2018]. -As a result of a [heavy propaganda and branding campaign](#TheReturn), the thermal fogger was just becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. -Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. - -Beyond their legacy as the first domestic fogger deployments, the lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come. -The Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids [@Hudson1976]. - -## Miami, August 8 {- #MiamiFL1968_08_08} - -The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the "[Liberty City Riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Miami_riot)", which took place in during the [1968 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention) (RNC) in Miami, Florida [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996; @McArdle2018]. -A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. -When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a "Wallace for President" bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. - -Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. -Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. -Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city [@Tschenschlok1995]. - -FHP used a truck with multiple foggers [@Lorentzen2018], described as "essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine" that "spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone" [@Tschenschlok1995]. - -FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old [@McArdle2018]. -The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air [@Tschenschlok1995]. - - -## Chicago, August 26 - 29 {- #ChicagoIL1968_08_26} - -Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the [Democratic National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention), and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops [@TaylorandMorris2018]) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news [@Schultz1969; @Karnow1983; @Farber1988; @Langguth2000]. -After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons [@TaylorandMorris2018]. - -Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in [Berkeley the year later](#BerkeleyCA1969_02_21) states - -> A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - @TheDailyTribune1969_02_21 - -As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. -I am continuing to search for evidence. - - -## Berkeley, August 31 {- #BerkeleyCA1968_08_31} - -A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31; @TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31], including [use of a pepper fogger](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26) [@TheDailyTribune1969_02_21]. -In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a "new police weapon... which produced a gas that caused sneezing" [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]. - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley19680831) Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA [@UPIphoto1968]. - -```{r imgberkeley19680831, echo=FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap="(ref:imgberkeley19680831)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W newspaper clipping. To left is an officer wearing long pants, long sleeved shirt, and a helmet walking forward carrying a fogger in the right hand. The fogger is blowing fog through a tube and a cloud is forming. Background is a storefront window and door. To the right 2 people are moving away from the fog, leaning on one another, and covering their faces with their hands."} - -knitr::include_graphics("img/berkeley_1968_08_31.png") -``` - - -Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]; Hanford, California [@TheHanfordSentinel1968_08_31]; Honolulu, Hawaii [@TheHonoluluAdvertiser1968_09_01]; St. Louis, Missouri [@StLouisPostDispatch1968_08_31]; Franklin, Pennsylvania [@TheNewsHerald1968_08_31]; Madison, Wisconsin [@TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31]; and El Paso, Texas [@ElPasoHeraldPost1968_08_31], a city whose significance was already budding. - -It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a [GOEC](#GOEC) brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior [@USTPO2018]. -The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name ("Pepper Fog") for another year [@USTPO2018]. - -
- -(ref:imggoecpf) Product image for thermal fogger [@GOECphoto]. - -```{r imggoecpf, echo=FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap="(ref:imggoecpf)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary pepper fog thermal fogger pointed to the left sitting by itself. The main body is a square box that's dark with a tag in the middle that's lighter and has dark writing on it that says pepper fog g o e c. The nozzle points to the left and is a longer thinner tube about twice as long as the main body. It is also dark and has a metal cage around it that is sparse and shiny. There's also a handle and some knobs on the top of the item and something that's a little bit difficult to make out off the back of the main body."} - -knitr::include_graphics("img/goec_pf.png") -``` - -
diff --git a/06-broaden.Rmd b/06-broaden.Rmd new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b1b76d --- /dev/null +++ b/06-broaden.Rmd @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ + +```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} +is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") +is_online <- curl::has_internet() +is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() +is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() +if (is_html) { + out_width <- 500 +} else if (is_latex) { + out_width <-"100%" +} + +``` + +# Broadening Application {-} + +The use of foggers, while not commonly overt, spread throughout the 1970s and 1980s, occasionally making an appearance in news media reports. + +## Racial Justice {-} + +Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general [@DSPDX2020]. +It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. +Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the [Liberty City Riots](#MiamiFL1968_08_08), a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. + +### Danville IL {-} + +Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. + +Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; [@USCB1970]) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations [@Palladium-Item1969], August 10th 1969. + +### Rodney King {-} + +Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of foggers being used explicitly during that time [@Askren1992]. +For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; @USCB1970) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson [@Askren1992]. + + +## Labor {-} + +Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. + +### North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 {-} + +The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. +A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers' wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. +The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them [@Carbone2017]. + +(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322) Police fog striking workers and their families [@APphoto1982]. + +```{r imgnorthKingstown1982322, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W newspaper clipping: To the left there are several people crouched on the ground with their heads down and covered. Behind them is a small crowd of people turning and moving away. To the right are three officials in helmets and masks facing the people on the ground and holding a fogger in front that is spraying a cloud of fog right over those on the ground."} +knitr::include_graphics("img/north_Kingstown_1982_3_22.png") +``` + +
+ +The fogging did not, however, break the strike [@Carbone2017]. + +Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe [@Carbone2017]. + + + + +## Celebrations {-} + +On occasion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. + + +### 1974 NHRA Nationals {-} + +Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 [@Courier1974_09_02; @TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10]. + + + +### 1975 New Years Eve {-} + +New Year's Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. +In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. + +
+ +(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231) Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach [@UPIphoto1975]. + +```{r imgftlauderdale19751231, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W image: Two people in foreground wearing helmets and face shields with gas masks and uniforms with short sleeves walking towards the camera, carrying boxy looking tools with nozzles pointing forward, with both hands. Person behind, also in short sleeve uniform, helmet, and gas mask carrying slim sabre or rod across the body. Behind these people seem to be more people but there are no clear details."} +knitr::include_graphics("img/ft_lauderdale_1975_12_31.png") +``` + +
+ + +The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette [@BerkeleyGazette1976_01_02] as well as the Tampa Tribune [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. + + + +## Trainging Accidents {-} + +While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation [@Judd1981]. + +### Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department {-} + +On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their "victim" and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains [@Judd1981]. + +Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training [@Judd1981]. +Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds [@TheCourierJournal1982_01_10], indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use "safe" smoke. diff --git a/12-the_carceral_system.Rmd b/07-the_carceral_system.Rmd similarity index 100% rename from 12-the_carceral_system.Rmd rename to 07-the_carceral_system.Rmd diff --git a/09-racial_justice.Rmd b/08-cbp.Rmd similarity index 76% rename from 09-racial_justice.Rmd rename to 08-cbp.Rmd index 93c521f..675c826 100644 --- a/09-racial_justice.Rmd +++ b/08-cbp.Rmd @@ -12,30 +12,37 @@ if (is_html) { ``` +# Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging {- #CBP} -# Racial Justice {-} +United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently [@Miller2019]. +Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. -Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general [@DSPDX2020]. -It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. -Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the [Liberty City Riots](#MiamiFL1968_08_08), a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. +## International Trafficking {-} -Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of used explicitly during that time [@Askren1992]. -For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; @USCB1970) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson [@Askren1992]. +Within a year and a half of the fogger's arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. +During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. +Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. +Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State [@DailyNews1972_10_27]. +Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. +Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the 'Drug War' [@Chepesiuk1999], it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. -The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the [2020 Black Lives Matter protests](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) [@pb20202021]. -Since then, the fogger has been deployed [three additional times by CBP in Portland](#PortlandORICE2020_2021), all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. +## BORTAC {-} -## Danville IL {-} +By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings [@CBP2006; @CBP2014; @CBP2018]. +BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; @CBP2006), providing a wide range of services [@CBP2014; @Miller2019]. +BORTAC's specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers [@CBP2006; @CBP2014], noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States [carceral system](@CarceralSystem). -Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. +Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico [@Borunda2020]. -Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; [@USCB1970]) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations [@Palladium-Item1969], August 10th 1969. +### Portland OR {- #PortlandOR2020_2021} -## Portland OR {- #PortlandOR2020_2021} +The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the [2020 Black Lives Matter protests](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) [@pb20202021]. +Since then, the fogger has been deployed [three additional times by CBP in Portland](#PortlandORICE2020_2021), all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. -### July 29 2020 {- #PortlandOR2020_07_29} + +#### July 29 2020 {- #PortlandOR2020_07_29} At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to "protect" federal property in Portland, OR [@DHS2020; @Flanigan2020; @Trump2020]. During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger [@Recompiler2020_07_29], which has been identified through photos as an [IGEBA TF35](https://www.nixalite.com/product/igeba-tf-35) thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. @@ -55,7 +62,7 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/portland_2020_07_29.jpg") -### Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property {- #PortlandORICE2020_2021} +#### Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property {- #PortlandORICE2020_2021} While the thermal fogger hasn't been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood [@Simonis2021] -- the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 [@Dubois2018]. @@ -75,7 +82,7 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/portland_2020_10_17.png")
-### Inaugration 2021 {- #J20} +#### Inaugration 2021 {- #J20} The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day ("J20") Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building [@Recompiler2021_01_20]. The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school [@Recompiler2021_01_20; @Simonis2021]. @@ -115,5 +122,3 @@ knitr::include_graphics("img/portland_2021_01_23_2.png")
- - diff --git a/08-high_schools.Rmd b/08-high_schools.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index 5d878a3..0000000 --- a/08-high_schools.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,61 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# High Schools {-} - -Almost immediately, law enforcement extended use of foggers from [universities]{#Universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. - -I will stop to repeat that again so that we can all (myself included) reflect on this. - -Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to [gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels](#Vietnam). - -## San Gordonio {- #SanGordonio} - -Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) [@TheDeltaDemocratTimes1969_11_20] on November 20, 1969 references a "recent" use of the fogger on students. - -
- -(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx) Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School [@UPIphoto1969]. - -```{r imgsanbernardino1969xxxx, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W faded image: To the left is a person wearing a uniform with a patch on the shoulder and a helmet. In their right hand is the nozzle to a fogger and it appears to be emitting fog. There is a white fog cloud covering most of the rest of the image."} -knitr::include_graphics("img/san_bernardino_1969_xx_xx.jpg") -``` - -
- -Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. -On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a "major racial confrontation" among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus [@Yetzeretal1971]. - - - -## Lawrence {- #Lawrence1970_04_21} - -Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members [@Monhollon2002]. -The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards [@Monhollon2002]. - -Black students had occuppied the principal's office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school [@Monhollon2002]. -Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers [@Monhollon2002]. -The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout [@Monhollon2002]. - -The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the [GOEC Pepper Fog](#GOEC) fogger: - -
- -(ref:imglawrence19700421) Police bring a [GOEC](#GOEC) pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School [@UKA1970]. - -```{r imglawrence19700421, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imglawrence19700421)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger."} -knitr::include_graphics("img/lawrence_1970_04_21.jpg") -``` - -
diff --git a/09-conclusion.Rmd b/09-conclusion.Rmd new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c9eb63 --- /dev/null +++ b/09-conclusion.Rmd @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ + +```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} +is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") +is_online <- curl::has_internet() +is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() +is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() +if (is_html) { + out_width <- 500 +} else if (is_latex) { + out_width <-"100%" +} + +``` + +# Conclusion {- #Conclusion} + +Although the use of a thermal fogger by US CBP to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protesters in Portland in 2020 and 2021 appeared novel to many, the truth is that it is just the most recent chapter in acylical narrative stretching back half a century and spanning the globe. + +Spawned from the US military occupation of Vietnam, the thermal fogger has always been a tool for suppressing resistance among the populace. +Its initial transition to the American homefront was rapid and smooth, with retired military law enforcement eager to deploy them against civil rights and anti-war protesters. + +As the fogger grew less popular with police and faded from public view in the past few decades, its use was maintained in the carceral system +Simultaneously, foggers were peddled by US CBP Agents overseas -- a second deployment. +Agents from the same units within CBP then brought the fogger back home again, for a second return. + +Throughout all of this, the fogger was used to maim and even kill individuals while targeting the marginalized, many of whom have stories that have not been heard publicly. +I hope that through this work, I can call attention to the shared history across generations, spark conversations, and facilitate story telling to illuminate the impacts of the thermal fogger on human people beings. + +Building on the concept of an Imperial Boomerang, I propose that the trajectory of the thermal fogger can be thought of as an Imperial Tetherball, with multiple depatures and returns. +Key questions from my perspective are then: + +- what perpetuates the momentum of the fogger, facilitating it to swing around more than once? +- what routes exist for subsequent rotations where the fogger could be deployed overseas and then brought home again? + +Clearly, this topic deserves more theoretical evaluation, as well. + +While the thermal fogger is still presently _in play_ in Portland, countless other departments around the world have these machines of war sitting in their arsenals, primed and ready. + +And we still don't even know what comes out of the exhaust nozzle. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/10-labor.Rmd b/10-labor.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index 514515c..0000000 --- a/10-labor.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# Labor {-} - -Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. - -### North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 {-} - -The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. -A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers' wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. -The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them [@Carbone2017]. - -
- -(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322) Police fog striking workers and their families [@APphoto1982]. - -```{r imgnorthKingstown1982322, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W newspaper clipping: To the left there are several people crouched on the ground with their heads down and covered. Behind them is a small crowd of people turning and moving away. To the right are three officials in helmets and masks facing the people on the ground and holding a fogger in front that is spraying a cloud of fog right over those on the ground."} -knitr::include_graphics("img/north_Kingstown_1982_3_22.png") -``` - -
- -The fogging did not, however, break the strike [@Carbone2017]. - -Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe [@Carbone2017]. - diff --git a/11-celebrations.Rmd b/11-celebrations.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index f66cbf8..0000000 --- a/11-celebrations.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# Celebrations {-} - -On occassion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. - -### 1975 New Years Eve {-} - -New Year's Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. -In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. - -
- -(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231) Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach [@UPIphoto1975]. - -```{r imgftlauderdale19751231, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W image: Two people in foreground wearing helmets and face shields with gas masks and uniforms with short sleeves walking towards the camera, carrying boxy looking tools with nozzles pointing forward, with both hands. Person behind, also in short sleeve uniform, helmet, and gas mask carrying slim sabre or rod across the body. Behind these people seem to be more people but there are no clear details."} -knitr::include_graphics("img/ft_lauderdale_1975_12_31.png") -``` - -
- - -The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette [@BerkeleyGazette1976_01_02] as well as the Tampa Tribune [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. - - -### 1974 NHRA Nationals {-} - -Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 [@Courier1974_09_02; @TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10]. - - diff --git a/13-accidents.Rmd b/13-accidents.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index 51b70a9..0000000 --- a/13-accidents.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# Accidents {-} - -### Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment {-} - -While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation [@Judd1981]. -On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their "victim" and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains [@Judd1981]. - -Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training [@Judd1981]. -Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds [@TheCourierJournal1982_01_10], indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use "safe" smoke. diff --git a/14-cbp.Rmd b/14-cbp.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index 73f91c3..0000000 --- a/14-cbp.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging {- #CBP} - -United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently [@Miller2019]. -Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. - -### International Trafficking {-} - -Within a year and a half of the fogger's arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. -During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. -Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. -Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State [@DailyNews1972_10_27]. -Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. - -Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the 'Drug War' [@Chepesiuk1999], it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. - -### BORTAC {-} - -By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings [@CBP2006; @CBP2014; @CBP2018]. -BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; @CBP2006), providing a wide range of services [@CBP2014; @Miller2019]. -BORTAC's specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers [@CBP2006; @CBP2014], noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States [carceral system](@CarceralSystem). - -BORTAC would be the unit to bring the thermal fogger back to use against domestic civilian protesters during the [Black Lives Matter](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) and [Ablolish ICE](#PortlandORICE2020_2021) protests in Portland Oregon during 2020 and 2021. -Indeed, Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico [@Borunda2020]. - diff --git a/15-science.Rmd b/15-science.Rmd deleted file mode 100644 index 8dd8a18..0000000 --- a/15-science.Rmd +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ - -```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} -is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") -is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() -is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() -if (is_html) { - out_width <- 500 -} else if (is_latex) { - out_width <-"100%" -} - -``` - -# The Science of Thermal Fogging {- #Science} - -The concept behind using a thermal fogger to disperse chemical weapons is known as [pulsejet technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsejet), which is indeed a jet propulsion method. -For the purposes of thermal fogging, the chemicals are heated to ~1400 degrees Celsius (C) in a combustion chamber and the fogger uses airflow to push the chemical mixture out a long nozzle resonator that cools the fog to 100-500 C before it is blown out as fog that cools as it hits air. - -
- -(ref:imgCrockett1969) Concept drawing from the International Association of Chiefs of Police chemical agents manual [@Crockett1969]. - -```{r imgCrockett1969, echo = FALSE, out.width = out_width, fig.cap = "(ref:imgCrockett1969)", fig.align = "center", fig.alt = "B/W image drawing with text from an old white paper book. The text says FOG DISSEMINATION at the top then a paragraph with `Fog dissemination devices operate by rapidly vaporizing a high boiling point liquid agent formulation. This is accomplished by injecting the liquid agent into a hot gas flow and allowing the vaporized agent to contact the cooler ambient air where the agent condenses into a fog and ultimately into extremely small agent particles.` In the middle is the drawing with a square on the left with a long rectangle coming out of it to the right with a cloud out the further end of the rectangle. There are bits of text around it, pointing to the box it says `FUEL`, `SPARK`, and `COMBUSTION CHAMBER`. in the middle of the rectange it says `HOT GASES` in the middle of arrows pointing out towards the cloud. Along the rectangle another injection area is noted for `Liquid Agent Injection` Text on the bottom says `FIGURE 4. FOG DISSEMINATION. A liquid chemical agent is vaporized by a hot gas flow and released as a fog cloud`."} -knitr::include_graphics("img/Crockett1969.png") -``` - -
- -Although the mixture does cool considerably from its peak temperature before being released, the chemicals were heated to such high temperatures that they will thermally decompose, creating a much more toxic mixture of gasses. -Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of [CN gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride) (248 C @Compton1987), [CS gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CS_gas) (450 - 550 C; @Xueetal2015), [Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper_spray) (< 200 C; @HendersonandHenderson1992), and [Terephthalic Acid (TPA) smoke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terephthalic_acid) (445 C; @KimyonokandUluturk2016) are well below the temperatures achieved in a thermal fogger. - -As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixture is likely to have considerably higher toxicity than product labels and safety data sheets indicate. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/99-references.Rmd b/99-references.Rmd index 2801405..b87e9bf 100644 --- a/99-references.Rmd +++ b/99-references.Rmd @@ -1,4 +1,13 @@ -# References {- #References} +```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} +is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") +is_online <- curl::has_internet() +is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() +is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() +``` + +```{asis ref, include=is_html} +# References {- #References} +``` diff --git a/_book/01-foreword.md b/_book/00-preface.md similarity index 92% rename from _book/01-foreword.md rename to _book/00-preface.md index 9df40ec..2e76fad 100644 --- a/_book/01-foreword.md +++ b/_book/00-preface.md @@ -1,13 +1,16 @@ -# Foreword {-} -### Content Warning {-} + +# Preface {-} + +[An archived version of this book is available on Zenodo](https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4850406). + +## Content Warning {-} This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers. - -### Land Acknowledgment {-} +## Land Acknowledgment {-} This work's impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America -- the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima. @@ -19,13 +22,13 @@ I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and ple I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear. -### Inherent Bias {-} +## Inherent Bias {-} This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if "legally required"), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered. -### Author Position {-} +## Author Position {-} I, [Dr. Juniper L. Simonis](https://juniperlsimonis.com) (_they/them/theirs_), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcement's chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment. @@ -41,17 +44,17 @@ Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a d I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people. -### Financial Statement {-} +## Financial Statement {-} All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. No external funding was provided. -### Licenses {-} +## Licenses {-} This book it created under a [dual license](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/blob/main/LICENSE.md) that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the [References](#References) and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors. -### Acknowledgments {-} +## Acknowledgments {-} My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobby's murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. @@ -68,8 +71,10 @@ Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images. Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the [Lawrence High School](#Lawrence1970_04_21) protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful. +Christophe Dervieux provided an example of how to render figure alt-text in an appendix: https://cderv.rbind.io/2021/06/29/fig-alt-appendix/. + The cover image is based on @Lewis-Rolland2021a. -### Contribute Information {-} +## Contribute Information {-} If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out [via the Chem Weapons Research Website](https://chemicalweaponsresearch.com/contact/) or submit an [issue](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/issues/new/choose) or [pull request](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/compare) on our [GitHub repository for the book](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger). diff --git a/_book/02-introduction.md b/_book/01-introduction.md similarity index 99% rename from _book/02-introduction.md rename to _book/01-introduction.md index 4b20a8a..7170bf5 100644 --- a/_book/02-introduction.md +++ b/_book/01-introduction.md @@ -61,3 +61,4 @@ Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of common chemical contemporary chemic As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixtures are likely to have considerably higher toxicities than product labels and safety sheets indicate, which are already concerning [@defteccs]. + diff --git a/_book/03-vietnam.md b/_book/02-vietnam.md similarity index 99% rename from _book/03-vietnam.md rename to _book/02-vietnam.md index 4101068..ee6f447 100644 --- a/_book/03-vietnam.md +++ b/_book/02-vietnam.md @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ -# Vietnam {- #Vietnam} +# A Colonial Tool {- #Vietnam} The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century [@USMACV1965; @Bunker1996]. diff --git a/_book/04-the_return.md b/_book/03-return.md similarity index 99% rename from _book/04-the_return.md rename to _book/03-return.md index 554e077..d12d695 100644 --- a/_book/04-the_return.md +++ b/_book/03-return.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ -# The Return {- #TheReturn} +# Domestic Applications {- #TheReturn} As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang [@Cesaire1950; @Arendt1951; @Foucault1976], the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people [@Graham2013]. diff --git a/_book/06-the_spread.md b/_book/04-conventions.md similarity index 50% rename from _book/06-the_spread.md rename to _book/04-conventions.md index 4355eff..56e6545 100644 --- a/_book/06-the_spread.md +++ b/_book/04-conventions.md @@ -1,13 +1,81 @@ -# Coming Soon To A Town Near You! {-} +# The 1968 Conventions {- #The1968Conventions} + +Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions [@McArdle2018; @TaylorandMorris2018]. +As a result of a [heavy propaganda and branding campaign](#TheReturn), the thermal fogger was just becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. +Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. + +Beyond their legacy as the first domestic fogger deployments, the lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come. +The Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids [@Hudson1976]. + +## Miami, August 8 {- #MiamiFL1968_08_08} + +The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the "[Liberty City Riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Miami_riot)", which took place in during the [1968 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention) (RNC) in Miami, Florida [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996; @McArdle2018]. +A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. +When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a "Wallace for President" bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. + +Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. +Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. +Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city [@Tschenschlok1995]. + +FHP used a truck with multiple foggers [@Lorentzen2018], described as "essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine" that "spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone" [@Tschenschlok1995]. + +FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old [@McArdle2018]. +The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air [@Tschenschlok1995]. + + +## Chicago, August 26 - 29 {- #ChicagoIL1968_08_26} + +Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the [Democratic National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention), and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops [@TaylorandMorris2018]) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news [@Schultz1969; @Karnow1983; @Farber1988; @Langguth2000]. +After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons [@TaylorandMorris2018]. + +Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in [Berkeley the year later](#BerkeleyCA1969_02_21) states + +> A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - @TheDailyTribune1969_02_21 + +As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. +I am continuing to search for evidence. + + +## Berkeley, August 31 {- #BerkeleyCA1968_08_31} + +A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31; @TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31], including [use of a pepper fogger](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26) [@TheDailyTribune1969_02_21]. +In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a "new police weapon... which produced a gas that caused sneezing" [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]. + +
+ +(ref:imgberkeley19680831) Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA [@UPIphoto1968]. + +
+B/W newspaper clipping. To left is an officer wearing long pants, long sleeved shirt, and a helmet walking forward carrying a fogger in the right hand. The fogger is blowing fog through a tube and a cloud is forming. Background is a storefront window and door. To the right 2 people are moving away from the fog, leaning on one another, and covering their faces with their hands. +

(\#fig:imgberkeley19680831)(ref:imgberkeley19680831)

+
+ + +Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]; Hanford, California [@TheHanfordSentinel1968_08_31]; Honolulu, Hawaii [@TheHonoluluAdvertiser1968_09_01]; St. Louis, Missouri [@StLouisPostDispatch1968_08_31]; Franklin, Pennsylvania [@TheNewsHerald1968_08_31]; Madison, Wisconsin [@TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31]; and El Paso, Texas [@ElPasoHeraldPost1968_08_31], a city whose significance was already budding. + +It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a [GOEC](#GOEC) brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior [@USTPO2018]. +The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name ("Pepper Fog") for another year [@USTPO2018]. + +
+ +(ref:imggoecpf) Product image for thermal fogger [@GOECphoto]. + +
+Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary pepper fog thermal fogger pointed to the left sitting by itself. The main body is a square box that's dark with a tag in the middle that's lighter and has dark writing on it that says pepper fog g o e c. The nozzle points to the left and is a longer thinner tube about twice as long as the main body. It is also dark and has a metal cage around it that is sparse and shiny. There's also a handle and some knobs on the top of the item and something that's a little bit difficult to make out off the back of the main body. +

(\#fig:imggoecpf)(ref:imggoecpf)

+
+ +
+ + +## Coming Soon To A Town Near You! {-} Following the conventions, the fogger quickly became a part of the law enforcement arsenal. US police had a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out across the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s [@PlainDealer1971]. -## From the Conventions Outward {-} - ### Illinois {-} In the wake of the [1968 Democratic National Convention](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26), Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. @@ -60,11 +128,11 @@ The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chem
-## National Guard {-} +### National Guard {-} Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of "less lethal" options [@Bandy1970]. -## Small Town USA {-} +### Small Town USA {-} No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; @USCB1970) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 [@BoxElderAgencies1971]. @@ -103,7 +171,7 @@ The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; @USCB1970) purchased a fogger in 1971 in a The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers "on occasion" in Des Moines (Iowa's capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; @USCB1970) in addition to [one instance on the University of Iowa's campus](#IowaCity) [@DesMoinesTribune1975_05_06], although I have not located contemporaneous mentions. -## Crossing to Canada {- #Canada} +### Crossing to Canada {- #Canada} Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use [@Patterson1976]. A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers [@Patterson1976]. diff --git a/_book/51-universities.md b/_book/05-scholastic_endeavors.md similarity index 75% rename from _book/51-universities.md rename to _book/05-scholastic_endeavors.md index 318c788..5921663 100644 --- a/_book/51-universities.md +++ b/_book/05-scholastic_endeavors.md @@ -1,14 +1,18 @@ -# University Cities {-} +# Scholastic Endeavors {-} Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in [Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests](#BerkeleyCA1968_08_31), many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons. The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when [Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel](#CollegeParkMD1970_05_04) [@Cabe1970]. +Use of fogger-based chemical weapons against students, particularly students of color, was not limited to college campuses, but extended to high and middle schools. -## Durham {-} + +## University Cities {-} + +### Durham {-} Durham North Carolina Police broke up the "Allen Building Demonstration" taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger [@DMH1969; @Schreiberetal1971a; @Schreiberetal1971b]. The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel [@Schreiberetal1971a; @Schreiberetal1971b]. @@ -26,7 +30,7 @@ The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including
-(ref:imgdurham196902132) Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus [@DMH1969]. +(ref:imgdurham196902132) Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus [@DMH1969].
B/W Image: Background has brick building with steps. In front of the building from center to right, a line of 5 police officers facing front and wearing helmets & gas masks holding slim white clubs about a yard long. They are standing with legs apart and clubs in both hands in front of their bodies. On the left 5 officers similarly dressed, facing towards one another. Four slim clubs are visible, and one officer is holding what appears to be a fogger in one arm hanging down at the side. @@ -37,7 +41,7 @@ The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including -## Berkeley {-} +### Berkeley {-} #### February 21 1969 {- #BerkeleyCA1969_02_21} @@ -113,18 +117,18 @@ The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this t (ref:gasjeep) California National Guard's Gas Jeep [@gasjeep].
-B/W photo of An old style open-top army jeep with two National Guard troops in the front and one in the rear, the one in the rear is operating a thermal fogger. They are driving down what appears to be a residential street from right to left. There are houses and cars behind them and no one in sight on the street/sidewalk/etc. +B/W photo of An old style open-top army jeep with two National Guard troops in the front and one in the rear, the one in the rear is operating a thermal fogger. They are driving down what appears to be a residential street from right to left. There are houses and cars behind them and no one in sight on the street/sidewalk/etc.

(\#fig:gasjeep)(ref:gasjeep)

-## Seattle {-} +### Seattle {-} Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with "hundreds of unruly youths in the University District" on August 14 1969 [@StatesmanJournal1969_08_17]. Witnesses recounted that the machine was "highly effective", filling "2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute" [@StatesmanJournal1969_08_17]. -## College Park {- #CollegeParkMD1970_05_04} +### College Park {- #CollegeParkMD1970_05_04} On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixon's expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park [@WAS2013]. Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus [@Cabe1970]. @@ -167,7 +171,7 @@ The Maryland State Police liked the [GOEC](#GOEC) fogger so much they included i
-## Iowa City {- #IowaCity} +### Iowa City {- #IowaCity} Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 [@Eckholt1971]. @@ -175,7 +179,7 @@ The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as -## Minneapolis {- #Minneapolis1972_05_10} +### Minneapolis {- #Minneapolis1972_05_10} Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11a]. In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11b; @StarTribune1972_05_11]. @@ -183,8 +187,59 @@ In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) [@StarTribune1972_05_11]. -## Gainesville {-} +### Gainesville {-} Similarly to the anti-mine protests in [Minneapolis](#Minneapolis1972_05_10), on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed "The Monster" which "spewed tear gas" [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11b]. Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first [deployed thermal foggers via a truck](Liberty City #MiamiFL1968_08_08) in 1968 [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. + + + +## High Schools {-} + +As soon as they laid their hands on foggers, law enforcement extended their use from [universities]{#Universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. + +I will stop to repeat that again so that we (myself included) can all reflect on this. + +Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to [gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels](#Vietnam). + +### San Gordonio {- #SanGordonio} + +Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) [@TheDeltaDemocratTimes1969_11_20] on November 20, 1969 references a "recent" use of the fogger on students. + + +(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx) Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School [@UPIphoto1969]. + +
+B/W faded image: To the left is a person wearing a uniform with a patch on the shoulder and a helmet. In their right hand is the nozzle to a fogger and it appears to be emitting fog. There is a white fog cloud covering most of the rest of the image. +

(\#fig:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)

+
+ +
+ +Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. +On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a "major racial confrontation" among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus [@Yetzeretal1971]. + + + +### Lawrence {- #Lawrence1970_04_21} + +Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members [@Monhollon2002]. +The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards [@Monhollon2002]. + +Black students had occuppied the principal's office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school [@Monhollon2002]. +Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers [@Monhollon2002]. +The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout [@Monhollon2002]. + +The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the [GOEC Pepper Fog](#GOEC) fogger: + +
+ +(ref:imglawrence19700421) Police bring a [GOEC](#GOEC) pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School [@UKA1970]. + +
+yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger. +

(\#fig:imglawrence19700421)(ref:imglawrence19700421)

+
+ +
diff --git a/_book/05-the_conventions.md b/_book/05-the_conventions.md deleted file mode 100644 index f585269..0000000 --- a/_book/05-the_conventions.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ - - - -# The 1968 Conventions {- #The1968Conventions} - -Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions [@McArdle2018; @TaylorandMorris2018]. -As a result of a [heavy propaganda and branding campaign](#TheReturn), the thermal fogger was just becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. -Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. - -Beyond their legacy as the first domestic fogger deployments, the lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come. -The Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids [@Hudson1976]. - -## Miami, August 8 {- #MiamiFL1968_08_08} - -The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the "[Liberty City Riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Miami_riot)", which took place in during the [1968 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention) (RNC) in Miami, Florida [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996; @McArdle2018]. -A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. -When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a "Wallace for President" bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. - -Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. -Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. -Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city [@Tschenschlok1995]. - -FHP used a truck with multiple foggers [@Lorentzen2018], described as "essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine" that "spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone" [@Tschenschlok1995]. - -FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old [@McArdle2018]. -The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air [@Tschenschlok1995]. - - -## Chicago, August 26 - 29 {- #ChicagoIL1968_08_26} - -Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the [Democratic National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention), and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops [@TaylorandMorris2018]) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news [@Schultz1969; @Karnow1983; @Farber1988; @Langguth2000]. -After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons [@TaylorandMorris2018]. - -Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in [Berkeley the year later](#BerkeleyCA1969_02_21) states - -> A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - @TheDailyTribune1969_02_21 - -As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. -I am continuing to search for evidence. - - -## Berkeley, August 31 {- #BerkeleyCA1968_08_31} - -A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31; @TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31], including [use of a pepper fogger](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26) [@TheDailyTribune1969_02_21]. -In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a "new police weapon... which produced a gas that caused sneezing" [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]. - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley19680831) Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA [@UPIphoto1968]. - -
-B/W newspaper clipping. To left is an officer wearing long pants, long sleeved shirt, and a helmet walking forward carrying a fogger in the right hand. The fogger is blowing fog through a tube and a cloud is forming. Background is a storefront window and door. To the right 2 people are moving away from the fog, leaning on one another, and covering their faces with their hands. -

(\#fig:imgberkeley19680831)(ref:imgberkeley19680831)

-
- - -Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]; Hanford, California [@TheHanfordSentinel1968_08_31]; Honolulu, Hawaii [@TheHonoluluAdvertiser1968_09_01]; St. Louis, Missouri [@StLouisPostDispatch1968_08_31]; Franklin, Pennsylvania [@TheNewsHerald1968_08_31]; Madison, Wisconsin [@TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31]; and El Paso, Texas [@ElPasoHeraldPost1968_08_31], a city whose significance was already budding. - -It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a [GOEC](#GOEC) brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior [@USTPO2018]. -The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name ("Pepper Fog") for another year [@USTPO2018]. - -
- -(ref:imggoecpf) Product image for thermal fogger [@GOECphoto]. - -
-Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary pepper fog thermal fogger pointed to the left sitting by itself. The main body is a square box that's dark with a tag in the middle that's lighter and has dark writing on it that says pepper fog g o e c. The nozzle points to the left and is a longer thinner tube about twice as long as the main body. It is also dark and has a metal cage around it that is sparse and shiny. There's also a handle and some knobs on the top of the item and something that's a little bit difficult to make out off the back of the main body. -

(\#fig:imggoecpf)(ref:imggoecpf)

-
- -
diff --git a/_book/06-broaden.md b/_book/06-broaden.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1186070 --- /dev/null +++ b/_book/06-broaden.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ + + + +# Broadening Application {-} + +The use of foggers, while not commonly overt, spread throughout the 1970s and 1980s, occasionally making an appearance in news media reports. + +## Racial Justice {-} + +Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general [@DSPDX2020]. +It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. +Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the [Liberty City Riots](#MiamiFL1968_08_08), a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. + +### Danville IL {-} + +Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. + +Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; [@USCB1970]) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations [@Palladium-Item1969], August 10th 1969. + +### Rodney King {-} + +Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of foggers being used explicitly during that time [@Askren1992]. +For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; @USCB1970) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson [@Askren1992]. + + +## Labor {-} + +Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. + +### North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 {-} + +The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. +A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers' wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. +The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them [@Carbone2017]. + +(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322) Police fog striking workers and their families [@APphoto1982]. + +
+B/W newspaper clipping: To the left there are several people crouched on the ground with their heads down and covered. Behind them is a small crowd of people turning and moving away. To the right are three officials in helmets and masks facing the people on the ground and holding a fogger in front that is spraying a cloud of fog right over those on the ground. +

(\#fig:imgnorthKingstown1982322)(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322)

+
+ +
+ +The fogging did not, however, break the strike [@Carbone2017]. + +Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe [@Carbone2017]. + + + + +## Celebrations {-} + +On occasion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. + + +### 1974 NHRA Nationals {-} + +Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 [@Courier1974_09_02; @TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10]. + + + +### 1975 New Years Eve {-} + +New Year's Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. +In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. + +
+ +(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231) Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach [@UPIphoto1975]. + +
+B/W image: Two people in foreground wearing helmets and face shields with gas masks and uniforms with short sleeves walking towards the camera, carrying boxy looking tools with nozzles pointing forward, with both hands. Person behind, also in short sleeve uniform, helmet, and gas mask carrying slim sabre or rod across the body. Behind these people seem to be more people but there are no clear details. +

(\#fig:imgftlauderdale19751231)(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231)

+
+ +
+ + +The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette [@BerkeleyGazette1976_01_02] as well as the Tampa Tribune [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. + + + +## Trainging Accidents {-} + +While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation [@Judd1981]. + +### Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department {-} + +On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their "victim" and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains [@Judd1981]. + +Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training [@Judd1981]. +Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds [@TheCourierJournal1982_01_10], indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use "safe" smoke. diff --git a/_book/12-the_carceral_system.md b/_book/07-the_carceral_system.md similarity index 100% rename from _book/12-the_carceral_system.md rename to _book/07-the_carceral_system.md diff --git a/_book/07-universities.md b/_book/07-universities.md deleted file mode 100644 index 318c788..0000000 --- a/_book/07-universities.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,190 +0,0 @@ - - - -# University Cities {-} - -Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in [Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests](#BerkeleyCA1968_08_31), many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons. - -The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when [Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel](#CollegeParkMD1970_05_04) [@Cabe1970]. - - -## Durham {-} - -Durham North Carolina Police broke up the "Allen Building Demonstration" taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger [@DMH1969; @Schreiberetal1971a; @Schreiberetal1971b]. -The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel [@Schreiberetal1971a; @Schreiberetal1971b]. - -
- -(ref:imgdurham196902131) Deployment of a thermal fogger by police on Duke Campus [@DMH1969]. - -
-B/W Image: One person wearing gas mask and helmet, centered, stepping to the right. Person is holding slim white club in left hand and pepper-fogger in right hand. Fogger is pointing forward and a white cloud is surrounding the person to the front, back, and behind. The remaining background is black. -

(\#fig:imgdurham196902131)(ref:imgdurham196902131)

-
- -
- -
- -(ref:imgdurham196902132) Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus [@DMH1969]. - -
-B/W Image: Background has brick building with steps. In front of the building from center to right, a line of 5 police officers facing front and wearing helmets & gas masks holding slim white clubs about a yard long. They are standing with legs apart and clubs in both hands in front of their bodies. On the left 5 officers similarly dressed, facing towards one another. Four slim clubs are visible, and one officer is holding what appears to be a fogger in one arm hanging down at the side. -

(\#fig:imgdurham196902132)(ref:imgdurham196902132)

-
- -
- - - -## Berkeley {-} - -#### February 21 1969 {- #BerkeleyCA1969_02_21} - -A year after [using the fogger on a protest held in solidarity with the Chicago Protest](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26), police in Berkeley again deployed a fogger to clear demonstrators including striking students from outside a University Regents and Sproul Hall plaza on the University of California campus. - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley19690221a) Police use a pepper fogger and other chemical weapons to clear a University plaza [@APphoto1969a]. - -
-B/W newspaper clipping. Four people walking towards camera wearing helmets with face shields. Person on the left wearing white shirt and tie has several items hanging from belt. In right hand carrying radio with extended antenna. On right side person dressed in all black standing with a wide stance and holding pepper-fogger at hip height in right hand aimed forward. In center two more people dressed in all black, one with a short stick or club in left hand. Background is mostly cloudy with someone behind white shirt person, holding some sort of stick aloft. Glimpses of additional bodies are visible in the cloudy background. -

(\#fig:imgberkeley19690221a)(ref:imgberkeley19690221a)

-
- -
- -This deployment was covered in papers across the country including the Press-Telegram (Long Beach, California) [@PressTelegram1969_02_21], The Jackson Sun (Jackson, Tennessee) [@TheJacksonSun1969_02_21], The Daily Tribune (Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin) [@TheDailyTribune1969_02_21], The Sumter Daily Item (Sumter, South Carolina) [@TheSumterDailyItem1969_02_21], The New Mexican (Santa Fe, New Mexico) [@TheNewMexican1969_02_21], Janesville Daily Gazette (Janesville, Wisconsin) [@JanesvilleDailyGazette1969_02_22], and Messenger-Inquirer (Owensboro, Kentucky) [@MessengerInquirer1969_02_22]. - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley19690221b) Police engulf a University plaza in chemical fog [@APphoto1969a]. - -
-B/W newspaper clipping. Rather difficult to make out the people differentially in the background, but there's a large group of folks standing in the back part of the photo, the mid ground is relatively empty but filling with a cloud of white smoke eminating from an area on the left that appears to be an officer holding a thermal fogger. Behind everyone is the student union. -

(\#fig:imgberkeley19690221b)(ref:imgberkeley19690221b)

-
- -
- -Canadian newspapers detailed the fogger use as well, specifically the Red Deer Advocate Red Deer, Alberta, Canada) [@RedDeerAdvocate1969_02_21] and The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan) [@TheLeaderPost1969_02_21]. - -#### February 28 1969 {-} - -The following week, the police in Berkeley were joined by California National Guard troops to attack strikers, and continued to use the pepper fogger [@TheMiamiNews1969_03_01; @PressandSunBulletin1969_03_01]. - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley196902281) National guardsmen and police fog UC Berkeley [@APphoto1969c]. - -
-Guardsmen with bayonetted rifles and sheriff's deputies with tear and and pepper fogger walking through UC campus: B/W newspaper clipping: Eight people in masks, shields, and tied boots walking from left to right, the one in front wearing a spray fogger strapped on back and holding the hose and nozzle in front. A cloud of fog is spraying from the nozzle. The second person is carrying a bayoneted rifle upright. The others are only partially visible as they are passing behind a tree. On the right ahead of the others an additional helmeted person can be seen turning towards the left. Two slim trees are in the foreground. -

(\#fig:imgberkeley196902281)(ref:imgberkeley196902281)

-
- -
- - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley196902282) View from behind of the police using a pepper fogger on striking students [@APphoto1969d]. - -
-Four people walking away from camera, wearing helmets and holsters. Lead person has a fogger on their back and is holding the hose on the right spraying a fog ahead of them. Person on the right is carrying a bayoneted rifle raised above the left shoulder. The four are walking into the fog they’ve produced. There are some small trees to the right. -

(\#fig:imgberkeley196902282)(ref:imgberkeley196902282)

-
- -
- - - - -#### May 15 1969 {-} - -Alameda County sheriffs deployed a pepper fogger on UC Berkeley's campus again during the "People's Park Riots" of 1969 [@LATimes1969; @Hayes1970]. - -The riot apparently started when the university tried to prevent individuals living on the street from a volunteer-run park they built on a lot owned by the school [@ThePressDemocrat1970_10_13]. - - -The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this time fogged neighborhoods from the back of a Jeep: - -
- -(ref:gasjeep) California National Guard's Gas Jeep [@gasjeep]. - -
-B/W photo of An old style open-top army jeep with two National Guard troops in the front and one in the rear, the one in the rear is operating a thermal fogger. They are driving down what appears to be a residential street from right to left. There are houses and cars behind them and no one in sight on the street/sidewalk/etc. -

(\#fig:gasjeep)(ref:gasjeep)

-
- -## Seattle {-} - -Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with "hundreds of unruly youths in the University District" on August 14 1969 [@StatesmanJournal1969_08_17]. -Witnesses recounted that the machine was "highly effective", filling "2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute" [@StatesmanJournal1969_08_17]. - - - -## College Park {- #CollegeParkMD1970_05_04} - -On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixon's expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park [@WAS2013]. -Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus [@Cabe1970]. -By later in the day, UMD students had heard about the Ohio National Guard shooting four Kent State students and took up a position in front on and inside the UMD Chapel [@WAS2013], which did not stop the chemical weapons barrage or the use of the fogger specifically [@Oates1970] - - -
- -(ref:imgCabe1970) Police fog the University of Maryland [@Cabe1970]. - -
-Black and white photo of a college quad with brick facade white column buildingsbehind trees around the left, back, and part of right sides of the frame. Eight or so police officers walking away from the camera wear riot gear. A few in dark, a few in light. One in light near the front is carrying a fogger with a shoulder strap and spraying a big cloud off to the left, obscuring a large portion of the photograph. -

(\#fig:imgCabe1970)(ref:imgCabe1970)

-
- -
- -
- -(ref:imgOates1970) Police fog the University of Maryland Chapel [@Cabe1970]. - -
-Black and white photo of a college A whole bunch of police officers stand on or in front of a short (3 ft) brick wall surrounding the open field. A road, grass, and sidewalk are on this side of the wall, and a tree is just over it on that side. The open field behind the wall is filled with fog from one or perhaps two individuals fogging the chapel, which is where a large crowd gathers on the steps in the background. The chapel has a brick facade and white columns and a very large spire clock tower. The student protesters are visible on the steps of the chapel holding sigms. -

(\#fig:imgOates1970)(ref:imgOates1970)

-
- -
- -The Maryland State Police liked the [GOEC](#GOEC) fogger so much they included it in their Manual on Civil Disturbances as a tool for deploying [CS gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CS_gas) [@MSP]: - - -
- -(ref:imgMSP) Maryland State Police's [GOEC](#GOEC) pepper fogger [@MSP]. - -
-Black and white photo of a GOEC Pepper Fog fogger on a white ground with a maryland state police badge and in front of a brick wall. The fogger is in the mid right and points off to the left. -

(\#fig:imgMSP)(ref:imgMSP)

-
- -
- -## Iowa City {- #IowaCity} - -Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 [@Eckholt1971]. - -The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as "unidentified" because the Sheriff refused to publicly name the compounds, including to the news media [@Eckholt1971]. - - - -## Minneapolis {- #Minneapolis1972_05_10} - -Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11a]. -In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11b; @StarTribune1972_05_11]. - -The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) [@StarTribune1972_05_11]. - - -## Gainesville {-} - -Similarly to the anti-mine protests in [Minneapolis](#Minneapolis1972_05_10), on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed "The Monster" which "spewed tear gas" [@ArgusLeader1972_05_11b]. -Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first [deployed thermal foggers via a truck](Liberty City #MiamiFL1968_08_08) in 1968 [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. - diff --git a/_book/09-racial_justice.md b/_book/08-cbp.md similarity index 76% rename from _book/09-racial_justice.md rename to _book/08-cbp.md index d37f35b..10c03b6 100644 --- a/_book/09-racial_justice.md +++ b/_book/08-cbp.md @@ -1,30 +1,37 @@ +# Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging {- #CBP} -# Racial Justice {-} +United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently [@Miller2019]. +Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. -Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general [@DSPDX2020]. -It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. -Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the [Liberty City Riots](#MiamiFL1968_08_08), a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. +## International Trafficking {-} -Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of used explicitly during that time [@Askren1992]. -For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; @USCB1970) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson [@Askren1992]. +Within a year and a half of the fogger's arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. +During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. +Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. +Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State [@DailyNews1972_10_27]. +Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. +Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the 'Drug War' [@Chepesiuk1999], it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. -The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the [2020 Black Lives Matter protests](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) [@pb20202021]. -Since then, the fogger has been deployed [three additional times by CBP in Portland](#PortlandORICE2020_2021), all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. +## BORTAC {-} -## Danville IL {-} +By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings [@CBP2006; @CBP2014; @CBP2018]. +BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; @CBP2006), providing a wide range of services [@CBP2014; @Miller2019]. +BORTAC's specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers [@CBP2006; @CBP2014], noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States [carceral system](@CarceralSystem). -Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. +Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico [@Borunda2020]. -Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; [@USCB1970]) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations [@Palladium-Item1969], August 10th 1969. +### Portland OR {- #PortlandOR2020_2021} -## Portland OR {- #PortlandOR2020_2021} +The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the [2020 Black Lives Matter protests](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) [@pb20202021]. +Since then, the fogger has been deployed [three additional times by CBP in Portland](#PortlandORICE2020_2021), all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. -### July 29 2020 {- #PortlandOR2020_07_29} + +#### July 29 2020 {- #PortlandOR2020_07_29} At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to "protect" federal property in Portland, OR [@DHS2020; @Flanigan2020; @Trump2020]. During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger [@Recompiler2020_07_29], which has been identified through photos as an [IGEBA TF35](https://www.nixalite.com/product/igeba-tf-35) thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. @@ -45,7 +52,7 @@ This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while "_training too -### Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property {- #PortlandORICE2020_2021} +#### Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property {- #PortlandORICE2020_2021} While the thermal fogger hasn't been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood [@Simonis2021] -- the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 [@Dubois2018]. @@ -66,7 +73,7 @@ After marching to the ICE rental property, individuals tied the balloons to the
-### Inaugration 2021 {- #J20} +#### Inaugration 2021 {- #J20} The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day ("J20") Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building [@Recompiler2021_01_20]. The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school [@Recompiler2021_01_20; @Simonis2021]. @@ -109,5 +116,3 @@ That weekend, CBP deployed the fogger again during Abolish ICE protests, this ti
- - diff --git a/_book/08-high_schools.md b/_book/08-high_schools.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8519809..0000000 --- a/_book/08-high_schools.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ - - - -# High Schools {-} - -Almost immediately, law enforcement extended use of foggers from [universities]{#Universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. - -I will stop to repeat that again so that we can all (myself included) reflect on this. - -Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to [gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels](#Vietnam). - -## San Gordonio {- #SanGordonio} - -Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) [@TheDeltaDemocratTimes1969_11_20] on November 20, 1969 references a "recent" use of the fogger on students. - -
- -(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx) Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School [@UPIphoto1969]. - -
-B/W faded image: To the left is a person wearing a uniform with a patch on the shoulder and a helmet. In their right hand is the nozzle to a fogger and it appears to be emitting fog. There is a white fog cloud covering most of the rest of the image. -

(\#fig:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)

-
- -
- -Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. -On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a "major racial confrontation" among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus [@Yetzeretal1971]. - - - -## Lawrence {- #Lawrence1970_04_21} - -Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members [@Monhollon2002]. -The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards [@Monhollon2002]. - -Black students had occuppied the principal's office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school [@Monhollon2002]. -Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers [@Monhollon2002]. -The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout [@Monhollon2002]. - -The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the [GOEC Pepper Fog](#GOEC) fogger: - -
- -(ref:imglawrence19700421) Police bring a [GOEC](#GOEC) pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School [@UKA1970]. - -
-yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger. -

(\#fig:imglawrence19700421)(ref:imglawrence19700421)

-
- -
diff --git a/_book/09-conclusion.md b/_book/09-conclusion.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e80d356 --- /dev/null +++ b/_book/09-conclusion.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ + + + +# Conclusion {- #Conclusion} + +Although the use of a thermal fogger by US CBP to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protesters in Portland in 2020 and 2021 appeared novel to many, the truth is that it is just the most recent chapter in acylical narrative stretching back half a century and spanning the globe. + +Spawned from the US military occupation of Vietnam, the thermal fogger has always been a tool for suppressing resistance among the populace. +Its initial transition to the American homefront was rapid and smooth, with retired military law enforcement eager to deploy them against civil rights and anti-war protesters. + +As the fogger grew less popular with police and faded from public view in the past few decades, its use was maintained in the carceral system +Simultaneously, foggers were peddled by US CBP Agents overseas -- a second deployment. +Agents from the same units within CBP then brought the fogger back home again, for a second return. + +Throughout all of this, the fogger was used to maim and even kill individuals while targeting the marginalized, many of whom have stories that have not been heard publicly. +I hope that through this work, I can call attention to the shared history across generations, spark conversations, and facilitate story telling to illuminate the impacts of the thermal fogger on human people beings. + +Building on the concept of an Imperial Boomerang, I propose that the trajectory of the thermal fogger can be thought of as an Imperial Tetherball, with multiple depatures and returns. +Key questions from my perspective are then: + +- what perpetuates the momentum of the fogger, facilitating it to swing around more than once? +- what routes exist for subsequent rotations where the fogger could be deployed overseas and then brought home again? + +Clearly, this topic deserves more theoretical evaluation, as well. + +While the thermal fogger is still presently _in play_ in Portland, countless other departments around the world have these machines of war sitting in their arsenals, primed and ready. + +And we still don't even know what comes out of the exhaust nozzle. diff --git a/_book/10-foreword.md b/_book/10-foreword.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6bc92d0..0000000 --- a/_book/10-foreword.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,75 +0,0 @@ -# Foreword {-} - -### Content Warning {-} - -This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. -Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. -Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers. - - -### Land Acknowledgment {-} - -This work's impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America -- the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima. - -Chemical weapons are a common tool among imperialist regimes. -The events cataloged in this book occur at many locations across the present-day United States and internationally, with specific references to Canada, Mexico, and Vietnam, where colonizing forces of (predominately Northwestern) Europe have used forced labor from enslaved Black people to impose significant force on Indigenous cultures and individuals. - -No words can fully encompass the place in which each of the stories told in this book occur. -I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and please remember that each use of a thermal fogger or other brutal police force described here impacted many, many lives. - -I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear. - -### Inherent Bias {-} - -This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. -As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. -Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if "legally required"), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered. - -### Author Position {-} - -I, Dr. Juniper L. Simonis (_they/them/theirs_), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. -I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcement's chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment. - -I have a PhD in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Cornell, where I studied aquatic ecology and biogeochemistry -- disciplines I have put to use to studying the impact of chemical weapons. -Through my ecological research, I have uncovered historical and current information into the impacts of chemical weapons that I was not seeing being represented in the present day broad cultural discourse. - -From this need to share historical information came this book, a way for me to pass along a window into the racist, classist, capitalistic, and colonialistic throughline of the thermal fogger. - -I am an abolitionist in multiple senses: I believe that the use of chemical weapons, police, and the carceral system should all be abolished, full-stop. - -Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a deep connection to my protest elders who experienced thermal foggers decades ago. -I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. -We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people. - -### Financial Statement {-} - -All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. -No external funding was provided. - -### Licenses {-} - -This book it created under a [dual license](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/blob/main/LICENSE.md) that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. -All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the [References](#References) and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors. - -### Acknowledgments {-} - -My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. -I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobby's murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. -I hope that by shining a light on his story now, more people will come to understand just how horrendous the prison system is and fight for its abolition. - -The story of Robert Forsythe is almost certainly not unique, and only public knowledge because of the trial against the corrections officers. -I recognize that many others have been killed by thermal foggers, yet we will never know their names. - -This booklet is based on a variety of sources past and present, and to the journalists and photographers: thank you for sharing your work with the world. - -I have no idea how many people have been involved in digitizing historical newspapers, as their names are never on anything, but y'all are fantastic and I appreciate you so much. - -Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images. - -Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the [Lawrence High School](#Lawrence1970_04_21) protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful. - -The cover image is based on @Lewis-Rolland2021a. - -### Contribute Information {-} - -If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out [via the Chem Weapons Research Website](https://chemicalweaponsresearch.com/contact/) or submit an [issue](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/issues/new/choose) or [pull request](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/compare) on our [GitHub repository for the book](https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger). diff --git a/_book/10-labor.md b/_book/10-labor.md deleted file mode 100644 index 736f793..0000000 --- a/_book/10-labor.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Labor {-} - -Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. - -### North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 {-} - -The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. -A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers' wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. -The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them [@Carbone2017]. - -
- -(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322) Police fog striking workers and their families [@APphoto1982]. - -
-B/W newspaper clipping: To the left there are several people crouched on the ground with their heads down and covered. Behind them is a small crowd of people turning and moving away. To the right are three officials in helmets and masks facing the people on the ground and holding a fogger in front that is spraying a cloud of fog right over those on the ground. -

(\#fig:imgnorthKingstown1982322)(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322)

-
- -
- -The fogging did not, however, break the strike [@Carbone2017]. - -Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe [@Carbone2017]. - diff --git a/_book/11-celebrations.md b/_book/11-celebrations.md deleted file mode 100644 index 10186c9..0000000 --- a/_book/11-celebrations.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Celebrations {-} - -On occassion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. - -### 1975 New Years Eve {-} - -New Year's Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. -In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. - -
- -(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231) Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach [@UPIphoto1975]. - -
-B/W image: Two people in foreground wearing helmets and face shields with gas masks and uniforms with short sleeves walking towards the camera, carrying boxy looking tools with nozzles pointing forward, with both hands. Person behind, also in short sleeve uniform, helmet, and gas mask carrying slim sabre or rod across the body. Behind these people seem to be more people but there are no clear details. -

(\#fig:imgftlauderdale19751231)(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231)

-
- -
- - -The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette [@BerkeleyGazette1976_01_02] as well as the Tampa Tribune [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. - - -### 1974 NHRA Nationals {-} - -Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 [@Courier1974_09_02; @TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10]. - - diff --git a/_book/13-accidents.md b/_book/13-accidents.md deleted file mode 100644 index 289222d..0000000 --- a/_book/13-accidents.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Accidents {-} - -### Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment {-} - -While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation [@Judd1981]. -On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their "victim" and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains [@Judd1981]. - -Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training [@Judd1981]. -Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds [@TheCourierJournal1982_01_10], indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use "safe" smoke. diff --git a/_book/14-cbp.md b/_book/14-cbp.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8b84200..0000000 --- a/_book/14-cbp.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging {- #CBP} - -United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently [@Miller2019]. -Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. - -### International Trafficking {-} - -Within a year and a half of the fogger's arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. -During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. -Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. -Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State [@DailyNews1972_10_27]. -Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. - -Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the 'Drug War' [@Chepesiuk1999], it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. - -### BORTAC {-} - -By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings [@CBP2006; @CBP2014; @CBP2018]. -BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; @CBP2006), providing a wide range of services [@CBP2014; @Miller2019]. -BORTAC's specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers [@CBP2006; @CBP2014], noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States [carceral system](@CarceralSystem). - -BORTAC would be the unit to bring the thermal fogger back to use against domestic civilian protesters during the [Black Lives Matter](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) and [Ablolish ICE](#PortlandORICE2020_2021) protests in Portland Oregon during 2020 and 2021. -Indeed, Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico [@Borunda2020]. - diff --git a/_book/15-science.md b/_book/15-science.md deleted file mode 100644 index 703af5f..0000000 --- a/_book/15-science.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ - - - -# The Science of Thermal Fogging {- #Science} - -The concept behind using a thermal fogger to disperse chemical weapons is known as [pulsejet technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsejet), which is indeed a jet propulsion method. -For the purposes of thermal fogging, the chemicals are heated to ~1400 degrees Celsius (C) in a combustion chamber and the fogger uses airflow to push the chemical mixture out a long nozzle resonator that cools the fog to 100-500 C before it is blown out as fog that cools as it hits air. - -
- -(ref:imgCrockett1969) Concept drawing from the International Association of Chiefs of Police chemical agents manual [@Crockett1969]. - -
-B/W image drawing with text from an old white paper book. The text says FOG DISSEMINATION at the top then a paragraph with `Fog dissemination devices operate by rapidly vaporizing a high boiling point liquid agent formulation. This is accomplished by injecting the liquid agent into a hot gas flow and allowing the vaporized agent to contact the cooler ambient air where the agent condenses into a fog and ultimately into extremely small agent particles.` In the middle is the drawing with a square on the left with a long rectangle coming out of it to the right with a cloud out the further end of the rectangle. There are bits of text around it, pointing to the box it says `FUEL`, `SPARK`, and `COMBUSTION CHAMBER`. in the middle of the rectange it says `HOT GASES` in the middle of arrows pointing out towards the cloud. Along the rectangle another injection area is noted for `Liquid Agent Injection` Text on the bottom says `FIGURE 4. FOG DISSEMINATION. A liquid chemical agent is vaporized by a hot gas flow and released as a fog cloud`. -

(\#fig:imgCrockett1969)(ref:imgCrockett1969)

-
- -
- -Although the mixture does cool considerably from its peak temperature before being released, the chemicals were heated to such high temperatures that they will thermally decompose, creating a much more toxic mixture of gasses. -Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of [CN gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride) (248 C @Compton1987), [CS gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CS_gas) (450 - 550 C; @Xueetal2015), [Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper_spray) (< 200 C; @HendersonandHenderson1992), and [Terephthalic Acid (TPA) smoke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terephthalic_acid) (445 C; @KimyonokandUluturk2016) are well below the temperatures achieved in a thermal fogger. - -As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixture is likely to have considerably higher toxicity than product labels and safety data sheets indicate. diff --git a/_book/20-introduction.md b/_book/20-introduction.md deleted file mode 100644 index be5c98d..0000000 --- a/_book/20-introduction.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ -\mainmatter - - - - -# Introduction {-} - - -Late in the night on July 29th, during the height of the 2020 Uprising in Portland (OR), as protesters gathered outside the Hatfield Federal Courthouse to fight for racial justice, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)'s Customs and Border Protection (CBP) used a thermal fogger to deploy unknown chemical agents on the crowd: - -
- -(ref:imgportland20200729) CBP agent using a thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse, Portland OR [@Brown2020]. - -
-Fully riot-geared and for some reason in green camo US Homeland Security agents (to the middle and the left of the photo) behind a row of two-foot tall, one-foot radius metal posts, behind a metal grate wall over 7 feet tall with metal support beams and concrete pylon buttressing. In the front of the left side is an agent holding a plastic clear riot shield, through which you can see a patch that say 'Border Patrol Federal Agent' in yellow and some insignia patches as well. In the middle are the agents in camo, one with a hand on the shoulder of another who is operating a thermal fogger machine shooting gas through the fence. The machine is maybe four or five feet long and has a body not unlike a bush whacker with a two-cycle engine, but fueling a vaporizer instead of a rotor. The agent is holding the machine with their right hand visibly and there is a black strap across their shoulder holding it up. The machine is mostly shiny metal, although the tip is showing signs of corrosion (no surprise based on the compounds and heat) and the supports of the body are a bright green -

(\#fig:imgportland20200729)(ref:imgportland20200729)

-
- -
- -With this seemingly novel usage, DHS made a large swath of the populace aware of an insidious weapon that is actually not new, but -- in fact -- was [birthed](#Genesis) in the American occupation of Vietnam, [perfected](#The1968Convensions) for use against domestic protesters in the 1960s and '70s, and [sent abroad](#CBP) via CBP in the years since. -The subsequent [return](#PortlandOR2020_2021) of the thermal fogger to use against civilians domestically by the same domestic law enforcement agency (CBP) that sent it abroad after its initial domestic use is an extension of the classical Imperialist Boomerang [@Cesaire1950; @Arendt1951; @Foucault1976; @Graham2013] that can be more aptly described as a tetherball. - -Despite repeated use of thermal foggers to deploy chemical weapons over the last half century, the device appears to have slipped from the zeitgeist, only to reemerge in the city that experienced the most visible federal deployment of chemical weapons [@Flanigan2020] and weapons-based incidents of police brutality at racial justice protests (regardless of population size) [@pb20202021], perhaps due to the noteworthy density of photographers and videographers. - -Although not all of the weapon's history is documented, enough is that we can quickly dispel the myth that this deployment was _new_ in any notable sense other than being recent. - - diff --git a/_book/30-vietnam.md b/_book/30-vietnam.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4101068..0000000 --- a/_book/30-vietnam.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,200 +0,0 @@ - - - - -# Vietnam {- #Vietnam} - -The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century [@USMACV1965; @Bunker1996]. - -
- -(ref:imgvcmm) US Military deploying a thermal fogger into a Vietnamese tunnel [@Delf2012]. - -
-Book illustration (colorful, hand-rendered style) of green-clad US military service members in helmets flak vests, boots, etc, standing around a thermal fogger in the foreground. The fogger is a non-portable Mity Mite style fogger with a big reservoir and giant vacuum style hose running through a green tarp that's lying on the ground and covering the tunnel entrance. They are in a clearing with huts and the jungle in the background. -

(\#fig:imgvcmm)(ref:imgvcmm)

-
-
- - -## Context {-} - -### Mosquito Control {-} - -Early in the deployment of US troops to occupy Vietnam, the need for large scale mosquito control became so great that soldiers began improvising insecticide foggers by piping insecticide into diesel truck exhaust: - -> An insecticide fogger, one of the most useful improvisations, was made by mounting a [55-gallon oil] drum filled with 6 to 7 percent malathion insecticide in diesel oil ... on a 3/4-ton truck and spraying the poisonous mixture out with the exhaust from the vehicle. The insecticide is drawn from the drum by the partial vacuum in a line connected to the exhaust pipe just behind the manifold, and sprayed out under pressure of the exhaust. -> -> --- @Spicknall1969 - -The hack turned out to be __*4,500 times*__ more effective, covering nine square miles per day compared to 50,000 square feet (0.002 square miles) per day using a conventional manually operated fogger [@Spicknall1969]. -Given widespread mosquito concerns and the preponderance on diesel drums, the truck approach spread, and the concept of fogging was understood among servicemembers [@USMACV1965; @Spicknall1969]. - -### Tunnels {-} - -As the occupation continued, underground bunkers and tunnels dug by the Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAV) became a dominant presence on the both the literal and figurative battlefields [@Rottman2006; @Rottman2012]. - -
- -(ref:imgtunnels) Hypothetical Vietnamese village with a two-level bunker tunnel system [@Hanesalo1996]. - -
-Book illustration (blank and greys, hand-rendered style) of a two-level village tunnel system, connecting most of the structures with defensive trenches and bunkers. There are eight houses surrounding a community building and the nearest ones are cut-away so you can see into them and the ground beneath them, which shows the tunnels and bunkers. Each house has a shelter and they are connected via tunnels. There is a puji-stake moat with a sharpened bamboo fence around it surrounding the village and there's one road in, with a gate at the fence. There is a river or open water of some kind on the other side of the fence and then some fields and jungle. The community building is two stories and is next to a single flag on a pole in the center of the village. The flag is blank, and so functionally white. -

(\#fig:imgtunnels)(ref:imgtunnels)

-
-
- -Soldiers from the US, Australian, New Zealand, and other armies were tasked with clearing the tunnels and "rooting out" inhabitants [@Hemmings2019]. -The specialized forces designated for the work were dubbed "Tunnel Rats" and tear gas was part of their arsenal to "flush" individuals from caves, which they regularly deployed via pyrotechnic grenades and powdered explosives [@NewYorkTimes1977; @Rottman2006]. - -
- -(ref:imgratmask) Tunnel rat in a gas mask, undated [@Hemmings2019] - -
-B/W image. Open trench at bottom, center. Pipe runs across trench and into the dirt on either side. Person in gas mask crouched below pipe looking up and forward. Leg in pants and lace up boot stretched over trench leaning against right edge. Other leg and boot partially visible on left. Hand holding lit cigarette resting on foot on left. -

(\#fig:imgratmask)(ref:imgratmask)

-
- -
- -## Genesis {- #Genesis} - -### Implementation {- #FirstUse} - -In October of 1965, the USMACV (United States Military Assistance Command, Vietnam) was supporting the South Vietnamese Army's (ARVN) III Corps in a "search and destroy" operation in the Iron Triangle, an area known to house an elaborate Viet Cong tunnel system [@USMACV1965]. - -
- -(ref:imgirontriangle) US-defined War Zones C, D, and the Iron Triangle near Saigon, Vietnam [@USArmy2005] - -
-Text-book style map of the III Corps Tactical Zone from 1965-1967, according to the legend. This is the area of Vietnam around Saigon, with some of the South China Sea visible to the south at the bottom and Cambodia to the north west in the upper left portion. Major highways and cities are indicated on the map, but the main points are the color highlighted boundaries of the two war zones and the iron triangle, which are all in reddish organge, and the full tactical zone in a darker blue. There is text in the bottom left that says Map 13 and there is a unit bar in the legend that gives distances in both miles and kilometers. -

(\#fig:imgirontriangle)(ref:imgirontriangle)

-
- -
- - -The US Chemical Advisor to the ARVN's Chemical Team participated in planning the operation, and suggested using a Mity Mite (a.k.a. Mitey Mite, Mighty Mite) 2-cycle thermal fogger to aid in clearing tunnels. -A 6-member unit of ARVN Chemical Team members was organized on October 7th for implementation of the fogger [@USMACV1965]. -The next day, the force located a tunnel and set into motion an elaborate scheme to fog the tunnels with [hexachloroethane (HC)](https://chemicalweaponsresearch.com/hc) smoke from burning pots, marking the first known tactical use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons agents [@USMACV1965; @Rottman2012]. -Overall, the endeavor was dubbed a success, despite the tunnel already being empty [@USMACV1965]. - -Although (highly toxic; @Simonis2020) munitions smoke was used in this application, it was noted that tear gas would be "very effective in flushing VC from tunnels" should there been any present [@USMACV1965]. - -According to the *Lessons Learned* report filed by the USMACV the next month, - -> This is believed to have been the first tactical employment of Mity Mite _by ARVN_. [emphasis added] -> -> --- @USMACV1965 - -Note that there is no mention of use by USMACV prior to this deployment [@USMACV1965]. - - -
- - -### What About Not In Tunnels? {-} - -Seeing the Mity Mite in action got the wheels turning in the heads of USMACV officers, and the idea of deploying the fogger outside of tunnels was on the table [@USMACV1965]. - -This is made clear in the *Lessons Learned* report, where they state that the - -> Mity Mite portable blower can be used to ... generate an agent cloud for use against unmasked personnel __in the open__ ... [emphasis added] -> -> --- @USMACV1965. - -At the time, however, the set up used powder, pot, and grenade sources of chemical agents, which was inefficient and required extensive supplies and gasoline reserves [@USMACV1965]. - -
- -(ref:imgmitymite) Technical drawing of a backpack fogger [@USMACV1965] - -
-Technical rendering sketch of a tank with the words Mity Mite on the side. Funnel on bottom of tank leads to exhaust hose below and pipe on bottom of tank has small flexible hose attaching to exhaust hose as well. Exhaust hose comes from below and curves upward to the right. Below the tanks and attached by a frame is a small motor. -

(\#fig:imgmitymite)(ref:imgmitymite)

-
- -
- - -## Expansion {-} - -The practice caught on quickly, and Mity Mites were soon issued to ARVN units [@USMACV1965] and became common tools for Tunnel Rats [@Rottman2012]. - -
- -(ref:imgmightymite) A soldier uses a backpack Mity Mite to fog a tunnel [@USArmy1966] - -
-B/W image in a dirt field. Helmeted soldier on one knee with tank strapped on back. Lifting a board with left hand and holding an exhaust tube from the tank under the board with right hand. -

(\#fig:imgmightymite)(ref:imgmightymite)

-
- - -
- -The Army used foggers to pump "air" or "smoke" into tunnels in combination with "riot control agents" during Operation Cedar falls in 1967 [@Lehrer1968]. -And by 1968's Battle of Khe Sanh, it was standard practice to use foggers for tunnel excavation as well as mosquito and fly control [@Rottman2006]. - -
- -(ref:imgunpacktest) Engineers unpack and test a Mitey-Mite blower [@USAES]. - -
-B/W image. In a clearing in a densely vegetated area, a small tank with an exhaust pipe blowing fog to the right. The cloud of fog covers much of the right side. Towards the back, 2 people wearing helmets and fatigues with sleeves rolled up stand with hands on hips on either side of the fogger, watching it. -

(\#fig:imgunpacktest)(ref:imgunpacktest)

-
- - -
- -In 1969, the US Army Limited War Laboratory published a report on chemical weapons that included a section on foggers and agents for use in them, naming the [General Ordinance Equipment Corporation](#GOEC) and [Federal Laboratories](#DefenseTech) models that were already in production and a propsed development of a formalized truck-based fogger [@Samuelsetal1969]: - - -
- -(ref:imgtablea212) Existing and proposed fogging devices [@Samuelsetal1969]. - -
-Screen cap of a photo copy of an old report, it's black and white and in bad shape, but legible for the most part. It's Table A.2.1.2, Chemical Sprays and Foggers. There are columns: Device/Model, Manufacturer, Description, Estimated Cost (for development or for purchase), and Status (available already or needing development). There are 6 rows, one for each Device/Model: MK17 Pepper Fog CS-Tear Smoke Generator, MK XII, Turb A Fog Tear Gas Dispenser, Federal Dust Projector 271, Dynafog 70, and a propsed vehicle based fogger based on the mosquito fogging approach. -

(\#fig:imgtablea212)(ref:imgtablea212)

-
- - -
- -## International Melting Pot {-} - -Other countries explicitly supported the US colonization in Vietnam, providing a pathway for the fogger to be rapidly picked up by the armed forces of other nations. - -By 1966 the Australian Tunnel Rats were particularly fond of fogging tunnels with acetylene [@vietnam_aus1; @vietnam_aus2]. - - -
- -(ref:vietnamaus1) Double Acetylene Generator and a Mighty Mite Air Blower Used to Blow Fumes into Viet Cong Tunnels [@vietnam_aus1] - -
-Black and white photo of a Mighty Mite blower on the left and two containers of acetylene in the middle, both containers are metal boxes with labeling in small white text and then some bladder bag on top. There are large vaccum size hozes coming off the blower and going off frame to the right. The scene is the ground of a jungle that has been cleared a little, there are trees and foliage in the background and dense but matted down grass in the fore. -

(\#fig:vietnamaus1)(ref:vietnamaus1)

-
- - -
- -
- -(ref:imgvietnamaus2) Mighty Mite Machine Used to Contaminate Viet Cong Tunnel Systems with Acetylene [@vietnam_aus2] - -
-An individual crouches on the ground next to a blower, facing off to the right, with his left hand slightly resting on it. The photo is aimed down at this person, so the two people looking at the fogger while standing are partially visible from the feet upwards. The photo is an old black and white image and there are items around the sides that are difficult to make out, including potentially a cache of chemical weapons grenades on the right side and some sandbacks in the back. -

(\#fig:imgvietnamaus2)(ref:imgvietnamaus2)

-
- - -
- -[As expected](#TheReturn), the fogger quickly made it to Australian police departments, although with a decidedly negative response from the news media, who called it "highly controversial" admist a Sydney Police spending scandal [@Allen1972]. -Unnamed Australian arms experts who spoke on background said there was no application for the fogger in the country [@Allen1972], although that hasn't stopped its use elsewhere. diff --git a/_book/40-the_return.md b/_book/40-the_return.md deleted file mode 100644 index 79a1e69..0000000 --- a/_book/40-the_return.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,301 +0,0 @@ - - - -# The Return {- #TheReturn} - -As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang [@Cesaire1950; @Arendt1951; @Foucault1976], the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people [@Graham2013]. - -Indeed, it took just _three years_ from initial deployment [in Vietnam on October 8 1965](#FirstUse) to first application in the United States to gas Black racial justice protesters in [Miami, Florida on August 8th, 1968](#MiamiFL1968_08_08) during the Liberty City Riots [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. - -In alignment with the general "Imperial Circuit of Tear Gas" [@Schrader2019] between the US and Vietnam, the return of the fogger was aided significantly by the weapons industry, militarization of US police forces, transition of veterans to law enforcement upon returning home, and substantial propaganda in specialized and generalized outlets. - -## Manufacturers {-} - -American companies quickly jumped at the opportunity to refine the bulky, complicated Mitey Mite and sell thermal foggers to the military and domestic police departments. -As early as 1969, The International Association of Chiefs of Police thermal foggers in their Chemical Agents Manual [@Crockett1969], providing prime trade-focused marketing. - -### Sears Roebuck {-} - -The original Mighty Mite that established the fogger as a method of chemical dispersal was manufactured by a domestic company (Sears Roebuck) for insecticide application [@Applegate1969]. - -
- -(ref:imgM106) M-106 Mighty Mite Thermal Fogger, as promoted to law enforcement in @Applegate1969. - -
-Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary Mighty Mite thermal fogger. It's a backpack fogger, so there's a giant hose that's like a vacuum hose wrapped around in the middle and then another one coming off of the actual backpack, which is upright in the middle back right. there is a metal frame and a large reservoir tank sitting on top of the engine and other aspects of the machinery. There is a tube running out to the end of the hose nose from the back pack. On the right side of the image is a scale bar that makes it seem like the backpack is 24 inches tall. -

(\#fig:imgM106)(ref:imgM106)

-
- -
- -The bulkiness of the Mity Mite proved to be a hindrance in mobile application, however, and while chemical weapons corporations began their fogger lines with hand-held models using 2-cycle engines, there was a push to produce a more streamlined and specialized tool for fogging chemical weapons at civilians [@Applegate1969; @Applegate1970]. - -
- -(ref:imgjetfogger) Hand-held two-cycle thermal fogger [@Crockett1969]. - -
-Black and white technical drawing of a hand-held 2-cycle thermal fogger. The drawing is pretty minimal, but shows enough detail, in particular around the engine and fan, to get a sense of how it operates. There are also a few labels pointing out via arrows what the Recould Rope Starter, Fuel Tank, Carrying Handle, Creifugal Blower Assemble, and Air/Agent Exit Ports are, and to the where the Vaporized Agent is injected into the air stream. -

(\#fig:imgjetfogger)(ref:imgjetfogger)

-
- -
- - -### General Ordnance Equipment Corporation {- #GOEC} - -The General Ordnance Equipment Corporation (GOEC), who had just trademarked Chemical Mace the year prior, began marketing a hand-held thermal fogger using the phrase "Pepper Fog" in July 1968, a nod to the ability of the fogger to "pepper" the recipient with more concentrated bursts of fog if desired [@Applegate1969]. -They applied for a trademark on the phrase in October of the same year [@USTPO2018]. -By the end of August 1969, GOEC and its corporate owners Smith and Wesson had received the trademark on "Pepper Fog", which they (and subsequent owners) retained until it expired in 1991 [@USTPO2018]. - -
- -(ref:goecpf) General Ordnance Equipment Corporation thermal fogger [@GOECphoto], as shown in @Applegate1969. - -
-Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary pepper fog thermal fogger pointed to the left sitting by itself. The main body is a square box that's dark with a tag in the middle that's lighter and has dark writing on it that says pepper fog g o e c. The nozzle points to the left and is a longer thinner tube about twice as long as the main body. It is also dark and has a metal cage around it that is sparse and shiny. There's also a handle and some knobs on the top of the item and something that's a little bit difficult to make out off the back of the main body. -

(\#fig:goecpf)(ref:goecpf)

-
- -
- -They immediately began a heavy marketing campaign taking out full-page ads in police magazines that year [@GOECad1969; @GOECadLNS1970; @GOECadObserver1970]. - - -
- -(ref:imggoecad1969) GOEC advertisment [@GOECad1969]. - -
-Photocopied, blurried black and white magazine spread advertisement for General Ordnance Equipment Company (GOEC). The ad shows both their chemical mace and their fogger, although the fogger takes up 3/4 of the page. The left side has two main panels, one for each weapon, the top is a mace one showing an officer spraying mace into someone's face and the bottom part is the picture of the person fogging the railroad. The right side is an explainer on the pepper fogger that has three photos (including a repeat of the railroad one) at the top, the item image in the middle, and then a whole bunch of specs that are too blury to read -

(\#fig:imggoecad1969)(ref:imggoecad1969)

-
- -
- - -### Federal Laboratories {- #FederalLaboratories} - -Federal Laboratories, one of the major US manufacturers of chemical weapons starting after World War I, marketed a light-weight hand-held fogger, the 298: - - -(ref:fedlabimg) Federal Laboratories 298 [@Applegate1992] - -
-Black and white photo of police officer in a gas mask and riot helmet with the shield flipped up and full uniform, but not riot gear. The officer is holding a hand-held fogger that has a white top on the part, some shiny metal in the middle and then dark on the bottom with a dark nozzle that is spewing some fog. The officer is standing in a field in front of a forest. -

(\#fig:fedlabimg)(ref:fedlabimg)

-
- - -### Defense Technology {- #DefenseTechnology} - -The corporate descendent of both GOEC and Federal Labs and current owner of the legacy branding ([Safariland](https://www.safariland.com) subsidiary [Defense Technology](https://www.defense-technology.com)) continues to sell items under a ["Pepper Fog" line](https://www.defense-technology.com/product-category/pepper-foggers/), including a ["pepper fog generator"](https://www.defense-technology.com/product/pepper-fog-generator/) that utilizes the same pulse-jet generation technique [@DTPFG]: - -
- -(ref:imgdefensetechgepf) Product image for thermal fogger [@DTPFGphoto]. - -
-Yellow-gold box shape tool with a handle on top, an image of an eagle in flight on the side, and some gauges on top.The back of the box tapers and appears to have switches and controls. Coming out of the front is a long tube that narrows at the end. The tube has a wire cage surrounding it. -

(\#fig:imgdefensetechgepf)(ref:imgdefensetechgepf)

-
- -
- -This has supplanted the models produced by the corporate ancestors to Defense Technology, which were bulkier and considerably heavier [@Samuelsetal1969]. - -## Rex Applegate {-} - -A major figure in the translation of military "riot suppression" tactics to domestic law enforcement in the 1960s and 1970s was a former US Army Lt. Colonel named [Rex Applegate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex_Applegate). -Applegate took a commission as a second leuitenant, but had a lung ailment kept him from serving in combat in World War II and so was assigned to Military Police Company before being tapped by [Col. William Donovan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Donovan) to build and run the School for Spies and Assassins in the Office of Strategic Services [@Goldstein1998]. -Larger than life, Rex even served as bodyguard to President Franklin Roosevelt, before retiring and moving to Mexico at the end of World War II to consult with Central and South American governments on "riot control" [@Goldstein1998]. - -Applegate returned to the US in the 1960s during the civil rights and anti-war protest era and began proselytizing the good word of the thermal fogger [@Applegate1969; @Applegate1970]. -Indeed, Rex published what can only be described as a long-form written sales pitch for the GOEC Pepper Fog thermal fogger in the highly circulated _Guns_ magazine in 1970 [@Applegate1970]. - -
- -(ref:imgdemo) Demonstration of a pepper fogger [@Applegate1970] - -
-Black and white photo of a person using a pepper fogger across some railroad tracks. The person is standing in the mid ground on the left side of the photo and fogging towards the right mid-ground where the train tracks come from. The fog obscures the origins of the tracks off to the background on the right side of the photo. Behind the person on the left side is a taller tree along short building a car and some foliage. Further behind is a ridge of some kind with trees on it. The train tracks are old and partially overgrown. -

(\#fig:imgdemo)(ref:imgdemo)

-
- -
- -## News Media Propaganda {-} - - -Alongside the more overtly pro-police-use-of-chemical-weapons propaganda of Rex Applegate were other, perhaps more subtle forms of pro-fogger propaganda [@Macomber1970]. -Newspapers around the country were more than happy to print "articles" that promoted the new arsenals police departments were building [@LaPrade1970], complete with product demo photos. - -
- -(ref:imgVance1970) Amarillo Texas Police Sergent Jerry Austin with a thermal fogger and shotgun [@Vance1970]. Amarillo's 1970 population was 127,010 [@USCB1970]. - -
-Black and white newspaper clipping of an officer standing in front of a open garage door, next to a police car that is partially in frame on the left and front areas. A GOEC-style thermal fogger sits on the hood of the car in front of the officer, pointing towards and to the left of the camera. The officer is wearing beat clothing and a cop hat and also has a shotgun. -

(\#fig:imgVance1970)(ref:imgVance1970)

-
- -
- -
- -(ref:imgAmanphoto1970) Richland County (Ohio) Sheriff's Captain Robert Dysart demonstrating a thermal fogger to a crowd of >200 people [@Amanphoto1970]. Richland County's 1970 population was 129,997 [@USCB1970]. - -
-Black and white newspaper clipping of an officer standing in a field just front a forest/brush line, fogging out into the open area as part of a demonstration. The officer is wearing a riot helmet and coveralls and has the fogger slug over their right arm with a strap they are also holding with their left hand. The officer stands in the left part of the frame, fogging to the right, using a GOEC-style fogger with the nozzle tip right in the middle of the photo. -

(\#fig:imgAmanphoto1970)(ref:imgAmanphoto1970)

-
- -
- -[General Ordnance Equipment Corporation](#GOEC)'s Pepper Fog model seems to have been the favorite, at least amongst the departments showing off their new cool toys for photographs. - -
- -(ref:imgGaylord1971) A McHenry County (Illinois) Sheriff's officer fogs some grass in a rural landscape during a training and press demo day [@Gaylord1971; @PlainDealer1971]. McHenry County's 1970 population was 111,555 [@USCB1970]. - -
-Black and white photo of an individual standing in a grass field with wood horse fence and trees and barns in the background. The individual is in light clothes and a black cap and is using both hands to hold a pepper fogger, which they are using to fog some grass on the right side of the photo. they are facing the camera, so the classic GOEC label is visible. -

(\#fig:imgGaylord1971)(ref:imgGaylord1971)

-
- -
- - - -
- -(ref:imgWinter1970) Scott County (Iowa) deputy sheriff Jim Lewis, left, holds a new grenade launcher and a riot gun while Sheriff William Strout displays a pepper fogger and gas mask [@Winter1970]. Scott County's 1970 population was 142,687 [@USCB1970]. - -
-Black and white newspaper clipping of two officers standing in front of a large brick wall. Scott County deputy sheriff Jim Lewis, left, holds a new grenade launcher and a riot gun. he is donning a standard beat uniform with a bucket hat. Sheriff William Strout is on the right in street clothes and is holding a GOEC pepper fogger in his right hand and gas mask in his left. The officers are making an X with the barrells of the grenade launcher and fogger. -

(\#fig:imgWinter1970)(ref:imgWinter1970)

-
- -
- - -### Gary Wills {-} - -Pulitzer Prize-winning [Garry Wills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garry_Wills) (who at the time was considerably more conservative than he came to be later) penned an op-ed that ran in (at least) The Herald Statesman (Yonkers, New York) [@Wills1971a], The Daily Item (Port Chester, New York) [@Wills1971b], The Charlotte News (Charlotte, North Carolina) [@Wills1971c], and The Philadelphia Inquirer [@Wills1971d] in April 1971 in which he basically tells all the cry babies (pun intended) to suck it up because he "would not be afraid to undergo such experiences [as being pepper fogged] again" [@Wills1971a]. - -Notably, he touts the leading belief at the time that somehow thermal fogging is a "safe immobilizer of individuals" [@Wills1971a], despite the weapon not being demonstrably safer than gas grenades and not only not "immobilizing" but explicitly designed to mobilize immobile resisters. -Interesting, Wills compares indiscriminate and uncontrollable chemical weapons as "safer than dogs, which get out of control, bit bystanders (and even other cops) as well as 'the bad guys'" [@Wills1971a]. - -He concludes his piece by calling tear gas "humane in ... foreign wars [and] domestic encounters" [@Wills1971a], speaking clearly to the return, classically defining an Imperial Boomerang [@Cesaire1950; @Arendt1951; @Foucault1976]. - - -## Coming to Your Town Soon! {-} - -It seems like US domestic police have a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out accross the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s [@PlainDealer1971]. - -### Illinois {-} - -In the wake of the [1968 Democratic National Convention](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26), Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. -The pepper fogger was touted as being able to "empty a house fast" by Cook County Illinois Sheriff Joseph Woods [@MtVernonRegisterNews1969_04_09; @DailyDispatch1969_04_09], a definitely off-spec and dangerous use [@Nixalite2009b]. -The volume of fog emitted was also said to be able to fill [Soldier Field (capacity 61,500 fans)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldier_Field) in under a minute [@DailyDispatch1969_04_09]. -Regardless, the Chicago-area Sheriff decided they needed three of them [@DailyDispatch1969_04_09]. -The Sheriff's Major in charge of chemical arsensal Anthony Yucevicius noted the fogger's psychological effect on recipients, as well saying - -> They make a terrifying noise and probably will have a scare effect on crowds. - @TheTerreHauteTribune1969_04_08. - -Use expanded among and within states, as by 1972 the Illinois State Police also purchased three foggers, which they trained with in Springfield [@Robinson1972]. -In news reports, the foggers were described as - -> a cross between a machine gun, a power lawn mower, and a sun lamp. - @Robinson1972. - -### Florida {-} - -Similarly, following the [1968 Republican National Convention](#MiamiFL1968_08_08), Florida law enforcement took to the fogger [@Cain1968]. -In Sanford (1970 pop. 17,393; @USCB1970), the local police department purchased a fogger for use with [CN gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride), noting that it could shoot fog 20 ft for up to a 15 minute stretch, and so would be effective for controlling large masses [@Cain1968]. -They had, however, only used it in training and for demoing to the media [@Cain1968]. - -
- -(ref:imgOrlandoEveningStar1968) Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger [@OrlandoEveningStar1968]. - -
-(ref:imgOrlandoEveningStar1968) -

(\#fig:imgOrlandoEveningStar1968)(ref:imgOrlandoEveningStar1968)

-
- -
- -### California {-} - -Eager to not be shown up by the police in Berkeley, by 1970, the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department had already purchased their own fogger for their "big artillery" to use "when other forms of persuasion have failed" and started a media campaign [@Michals1970]. -The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chemical weapons use, which was set up through Officer Robert Hawkins [@Michals1970]. - -
- -(ref:imgCopleyNewsService1970) Los Angeles Sheriff's Department Officer demonstrating a fogger [@CopleyNewsService1970]. - -
-(ref:imgCopleyNewsService1970) -

(\#fig:imgCopleyNewsService1970)(ref:imgCopleyNewsService1970)

-
- -
- -### National Guard {-} - -Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of "less lethal" options [@Bandy1970]. - -### Small Town USA {-} - -No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. -The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; @USCB1970) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 [@BoxElderAgencies1971]. - -Police Chief Jay Christensen noted that the fogger provides a longer shelf-life than grenades and reportage noted that it - -> emits a continuous stream of smoke, chemical irritants, or **whatever solution** is fed into it. [emphasis added] - @Robinson1972 - -Use of federal funds to purchase chemical weapons, and specifically foggers, was not limited to one department. -Cities, counties, and states across the country used Omnibus Crime Bill money to up their chemical weapons caches, including foggers [@Conheim1972]. -For example, Oakland County in Michigan (1970 pop. 907,871; @USCB1970) purchased two pepper foggers for their South County Tactical Mobile Unit with part of their $21,066 in 1970 [@Conheim1972]. - -Oneota New York (1970 pop. 16,030; @USCB1970) purchased a fogger in 1969 during the anti-war demonstrations, although the department bungled its response to protests [@Griffin1973]. -As came to light during a public probe, Oneota Police Chief Joseph F. DeSalvatore requested a limited amount of training in the budget, and officers were therefore unable to deploy the fogger or other chemical weapons [@Griffin1973]. - -Gaston County North Caolina (1970 pop. 47,322; @USCB1970) Sheriffs purchased a fogger, which they turned on but not used to dispense agents multiple times by 1970 in their jail system "when there's been trouble brewing" [@Balloch1970]. - -
- -(ref:imgTheGastoniaGazetteSun19701004) Gaston County Sheriff's Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger [@TheGastoniaGazetteSun1970_10_04]. - -
-(ref:imgTheGastoniaGazetteSun19701004) -

(\#fig:imgTheGastoniaGazetteSun19701004)(ref:imgTheGastoniaGazetteSun19701004)

-
- -
- -Apparently the threat of [death by chemical weapons fog](#BigMac) is sufficient to scare detained individuals into compliance. - - -Within a few years, however, departments began to realize they had no need for the machines, and began selling them with no use aside from testing [@DesMoinesTribune1975_05_06]. -The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; @USCB1970) purchased a fogger in 1971 in advance of a motorcycle rally that never happened, and used free advertising in local media in attempts to pawn it [@DesMoinesTribune1975_05_06]. -The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers "on occasion" in Des Moines (Iowa's capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; @USCB1970) in addition to [one instance on the University of Iowa's campus](#IowaCity) [@DesMoinesTribune1975_05_06], although I have not located contemporaneous mentions. - - -## Crossing to Canada {-} - -Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use [@Patterson1976]. -A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers [@Patterson1976]. - -
- -(ref:imgMacKenzie1976) Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger [@MacKenzie1976]. - -
-(ref:imgMacKenzie1976) -

(\#fig:imgMacKenzie1976)(ref:imgMacKenzie1976)

-
- -
- diff --git a/_book/50-the_conventions.md b/_book/50-the_conventions.md deleted file mode 100644 index 27d8f98..0000000 --- a/_book/50-the_conventions.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ - - - -# The 1968 Conventions {- #The1968Conventions} - -Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions [@McArdle2018; @TaylorandMorris2018]. -As a result of a [heavy propaganda and branding campaign](#TheReturn), the thermal fogger was becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. -Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. - -The lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come, as the Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids [@Hudson1976]. - -## Miami, August 8 {- #MiamiFL1968_08_08} - -The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the "[Liberty City Riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Miami_riot)", which took place in during the [1968 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention) (RNC) in Miami, Florida [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996; @McArdle2018]. -A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. -When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a "Wallace for President" bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot [@Tschenschlok1995; @Lorentzen2018]. - -Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. -Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions [@Tschenschlok1995; @Tschenschlok1996]. -Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city [@Tschenschlok1995]. - -FHP used a truck with multiple foggers [@Lorentzen2018], described as "essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine" that "spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone" [@Tschenschlok1995]. - -FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old [@McArdle2018]. -The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air [@Tschenschlok1995]. - - -## Chicago, August 26 - 29 {- #ChicagoIL1968_08_26} - -Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the [Democratic National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention), and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops [@TaylorandMorris2018]) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news [@Schultz1969; @Karnow1983; @Farber1988; @Langguth2000]. -After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons [@TaylorandMorris2018]. - -Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in [Berkeley the year later](#BerkeleyCA1969_02_21) states - -> A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - @TheDailyTribune1969_02_21 - -As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. -I am continuing to search for evidence. - - -## Berkeley, August 31 {- #BerkeleyCA1968_08_31} - -A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31; @TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31], including [use of a pepper fogger](#ChicagoIL1968_08_26) [@TheDailyTribune1969_02_21]. -In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a "new police weapon... which produced a gas that caused sneezing" [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]. - -
- -(ref:imgberkeley19680831) Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA [@UPIphoto1968]. - -
-B/W newspaper clipping. To left is an officer wearing long pants, long sleeved shirt, and a helmet walking forward carrying a fogger in the right hand. The fogger is blowing fog through a tube and a cloud is forming. Background is a storefront window and door. To the right 2 people are moving away from the fog, leaning on one another, and covering their faces with their hands. -

(\#fig:imgberkeley19680831)(ref:imgberkeley19680831)

-
- - -Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey [@PatersonEveningNews1968_08_31]; Hanford, California [@TheHanfordSentinel1968_08_31]; Honolulu, Hawaii [@TheHonoluluAdvertiser1968_09_01]; St. Louis, Missouri [@StLouisPostDispatch1968_08_31]; Franklin, Pennsylvania [@TheNewsHerald1968_08_31]; Madison, Wisconsin [@TheCapitalTimes1968_08_31]; and El Paso, Texas [@ElPasoHeraldPost1968_08_31], a city whose significance was already budding. - -It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a [GOEC](#GOEC) brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior [@USTPO2018]. -The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name ("Pepper Fog") for another year [@USTPO2018]. - -
- -(ref:imggoecpf) Product image for thermal fogger [@GOECphoto]. - -
-Yellowed black and white photo of a stationary pepper fog thermal fogger pointed to the left sitting by itself. The main body is a square box that's dark with a tag in the middle that's lighter and has dark writing on it that says pepper fog g o e c. The nozzle points to the left and is a longer thinner tube about twice as long as the main body. It is also dark and has a metal cage around it that is sparse and shiny. There's also a handle and some knobs on the top of the item and something that's a little bit difficult to make out off the back of the main body. -

(\#fig:imggoecpf)(ref:imggoecpf)

-
- -
diff --git a/_book/52-high_schools.md b/_book/52-high_schools.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8519809..0000000 --- a/_book/52-high_schools.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ - - - -# High Schools {-} - -Almost immediately, law enforcement extended use of foggers from [universities]{#Universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. - -I will stop to repeat that again so that we can all (myself included) reflect on this. - -Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to [gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels](#Vietnam). - -## San Gordonio {- #SanGordonio} - -Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) [@TheDeltaDemocratTimes1969_11_20] on November 20, 1969 references a "recent" use of the fogger on students. - -
- -(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx) Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School [@UPIphoto1969]. - -
-B/W faded image: To the left is a person wearing a uniform with a patch on the shoulder and a helmet. In their right hand is the nozzle to a fogger and it appears to be emitting fog. There is a white fog cloud covering most of the rest of the image. -

(\#fig:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)(ref:imgsanbernardino1969xxxx)

-
- -
- -Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. -On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a "major racial confrontation" among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus [@Yetzeretal1971]. - - - -## Lawrence {- #Lawrence1970_04_21} - -Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members [@Monhollon2002]. -The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards [@Monhollon2002]. - -Black students had occuppied the principal's office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school [@Monhollon2002]. -Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers [@Monhollon2002]. -The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout [@Monhollon2002]. - -The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the [GOEC Pepper Fog](#GOEC) fogger: - -
- -(ref:imglawrence19700421) Police bring a [GOEC](#GOEC) pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School [@UKA1970]. - -
-yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger. -

(\#fig:imglawrence19700421)(ref:imglawrence19700421)

-
- -
diff --git a/_book/53-racial_justice.md b/_book/53-racial_justice.md deleted file mode 100644 index d37f35b..0000000 --- a/_book/53-racial_justice.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,113 +0,0 @@ - - - - -# Racial Justice {-} - -Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general [@DSPDX2020]. -It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. -Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the [Liberty City Riots](#MiamiFL1968_08_08), a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. - -Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of used explicitly during that time [@Askren1992]. -For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; @USCB1970) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson [@Askren1992]. - - -The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the [2020 Black Lives Matter protests](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) [@pb20202021]. -Since then, the fogger has been deployed [three additional times by CBP in Portland](#PortlandORICE2020_2021), all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. - -## Danville IL {-} - -Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. - -Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; [@USCB1970]) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations [@Palladium-Item1969], August 10th 1969. - - -## Portland OR {- #PortlandOR2020_2021} - -### July 29 2020 {- #PortlandOR2020_07_29} - -At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to "protect" federal property in Portland, OR [@DHS2020; @Flanigan2020; @Trump2020]. -During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger [@Recompiler2020_07_29], which has been identified through photos as an [IGEBA TF35](https://www.nixalite.com/product/igeba-tf-35) thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. -This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while "_training tool for military/law enforcement_" is listed among its uses [@Nixalite2009a], its safety requirements explicitly state: - -> "_**19. Do not fog directly against persons...During operation keep distance of minimum [10 ft].**_" - [@Nixalite2009b] - -
- -(ref:imgportland202007292) CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse [@Brown2020]. - -
-Fully riot-geared and for some reason in green camo US Homeland Security agents (to the middle and the left of the photo) behind a row of two-foot tall, one-foot radius metal posts, behind a metal grate wall over 7 feet tall with metal support beams and concrete pylon buttressing. In the front of the left side is an agent holding a plastic clear riot shield, through which you can see a patch that say 'Border Patrol Federal Agent' in yellow and some insignia patches as well. In the middle are the agents in camo, one with a hand on the shoulder of another who is operating a thermal fogger machine shooting gas through the fence. The machine is maybe four or five feet long and has a body not unlike a bush whacker with a two-cycle engine, but fueling a vaporizer instead of a rotor. The agent is holding the machine with their right hand visibly and there is a black strap across their shoulder holding it up. The machine is mostly shiny metal, although the tip is showing signs of corrosion (no surprise based on the compounds and heat) and the supports of the body are a bright green. -

(\#fig:imgportland202007292)(ref:imgportland202007292)

-
- -
- - - -### Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property {- #PortlandORICE2020_2021} - -While the thermal fogger hasn't been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood [@Simonis2021] -- the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 [@Dubois2018]. - -The first of such deployments occurred during the fall of 2020. - -Along with cities across the country, Portland hosted many events on October 17th focused around the racial and gender justice [@Recompiler2020_10_17]. -In the evening, there was a gathering at Willamette Park in the Southwest part of the city, where organizers passed out balloons detailing harrowing experiences of migrants and immigrants detained by ICE [@Recompiler2020_10_17]. -After marching to the ICE rental property, individuals tied the balloons to the gate to the parking garage, and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents including Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers deployed massive amounts of chemical weapons, including via a thermal fogger, throughout the neighborhood [@Recompiler2020_10_17]. - -
- -(ref:imgportland20201017) CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood [@Lake2020]. - -
-One person in green protective gear, wearing a bulletproof vest with weapons strapped to the body and wearing a helmet and gas mask is walking to the left carrying a fogger in the right hand arm extended down, nozzle pointing forward. A cloud of gas is coming from the nozzle. Next to them is someone dressed all in black with a bullet proof vest with the word POLICE across the back, also wearing a helmet and gas mask. It is night and there are additional clouds of gas and the shapes of people in the background. source: https://twitter.com/MasonLakePhoto/status/1317869903345414144 -

(\#fig:imgportland20201017)(ref:imgportland20201017)

-
- -
- -### Inaugration 2021 {- #J20} - -The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day ("J20") Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building [@Recompiler2021_01_20]. -The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school [@Recompiler2021_01_20; @Simonis2021]. - -
- -(ref:imgportland20210120) CBP officer holding thermal fogger [@Staab2021]. - -
-Night in a city, building lights in the background. One person standing alone in the center of a road, shown from the waist to the ankles. The person is wearing work pants with covered pockets at the thighs and calves, long sleeve shirt, and a glove on the right hand. In the left hand they are gripping the handle of a neon green fogger tool. The long black nozzle, covered with a wire cage, projects backwards and the motor is towards the front. It is being held at hip height; the arm holding it is relaxed down. -

(\#fig:imgportland20210120)(ref:imgportland20210120)

-
- -
- -That weekend, CBP deployed the fogger again during Abolish ICE protests, this time gassing even more of the neighborhood, including the local public school and veterans-preference housing [@Recompiler2021_01_23; @Simonis2021]. - - -
- -(ref:imgportland202101231) CBP agent holding thermal fogger [@Lewis-Rolland2021a]. - -
-Night time with the light from a street light visible in the background. Two officers dressed in full protective gear with bulletproof vests holding supplies on, with the word POLICE stenciled in yellow. They are both wearing helmets and gas masks. The nearer one is holding a gas fogger in the right hand. Thefogger looks like a long tube between 3 and 4 feet long with a handle and motor parts near the back. The tube is covered with a wire cage until about the last half foot, which is a plain and narrower tube. Behind these two officers are some dimly lit buildings and one or two other officers but they are not clear. -

(\#fig:imgportland202101231)(ref:imgportland202101231)

-
- -
- - - -
- -(ref:imgportland202101232) CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood [@Lewis-Rolland2021b]. - -
-Nine people wearing full protective gear including helmets and gas masks standing spread out across a street at night. One is holding a gas fogger in one hand and gas is spewing and a cloud is forming in front of them. There is also some gas cloud behind the group. All of them seem to be wearing weapons on their gear but details are not clear. It is night. There is a grey building in the background with a red door and red trim. A white stripe on the roadway has the words MELT ICE spray painted on it. -

(\#fig:imgportland202101232)(ref:imgportland202101232)

-
- -
- - - diff --git a/_book/54-labor.md b/_book/54-labor.md deleted file mode 100644 index 736f793..0000000 --- a/_book/54-labor.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Labor {-} - -Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. - -### North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 {-} - -The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. -A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers' wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory [@TheLexingtonHerald1982_03_23; @Carbone2017]. -The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them [@Carbone2017]. - -
- -(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322) Police fog striking workers and their families [@APphoto1982]. - -
-B/W newspaper clipping: To the left there are several people crouched on the ground with their heads down and covered. Behind them is a small crowd of people turning and moving away. To the right are three officials in helmets and masks facing the people on the ground and holding a fogger in front that is spraying a cloud of fog right over those on the ground. -

(\#fig:imgnorthKingstown1982322)(ref:imgnorthKingstown1982322)

-
- -
- -The fogging did not, however, break the strike [@Carbone2017]. - -Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe [@Carbone2017]. - diff --git a/_book/55-celebrations.md b/_book/55-celebrations.md deleted file mode 100644 index 10186c9..0000000 --- a/_book/55-celebrations.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Celebrations {-} - -On occassion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. - -### 1975 New Years Eve {-} - -New Year's Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. -In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. - -
- -(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231) Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach [@UPIphoto1975]. - -
-B/W image: Two people in foreground wearing helmets and face shields with gas masks and uniforms with short sleeves walking towards the camera, carrying boxy looking tools with nozzles pointing forward, with both hands. Person behind, also in short sleeve uniform, helmet, and gas mask carrying slim sabre or rod across the body. Behind these people seem to be more people but there are no clear details. -

(\#fig:imgftlauderdale19751231)(ref:imgftlauderdale19751231)

-
- -
- - -The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette [@BerkeleyGazette1976_01_02] as well as the Tampa Tribune [@TheTampaTribune1976_01_02]. - - -### 1974 NHRA Nationals {-} - -Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 [@Courier1974_09_02; @TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10]. - - diff --git a/_book/60-the_carceral_system.md b/_book/60-the_carceral_system.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0317841..0000000 --- a/_book/60-the_carceral_system.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ - - - - -# The Carceral System {- #CarceralSystem} - -Like many chemical weapons devices, thermal foggers are used in local, state, and federal carceral systems. -Unfortunately most deployments go undocumented or such documents never see the light of day. -It seems that the only time we find out about prisoners being fogged is when a serious incident occurs triggering outside investigations and the judicial system. - - -## Big Mac {- #BigMac} - -In the 1970s, the McAlester ("Big Mac") Oklahoma State Penitentiary was the site of considerable resistance and rioting by inmates [@TheRag1975; @WinterSoldier1975]. -A major tool used by the guards in retaliation was tear gas, which they deployed via shot shells, grenades, and pepper foggers [@Allen1974a; @Allen1975a; @Allen1975b; @Coffey1975b]. -Given its use here, it is highly likely that the Oklahoma State Penitentiary system used pepper foggers before (and likely after) [@Johnson1974]. - -The guards regularly isolated the uprising's leaders in the solitary confinement building known as "The Rock", sealed the building, and gassed it so thick it lasted for days [@Allen1974b; @TheRag1975]. -During the May 20 1974 gassings in response to riots, Black prisoner Robert Forsythe, a 33-year old serving time for a robbery, happened to be in solitary confinement due to being caught with contraband money and was not associated with the uprising directly, and so inexperienced with the effects of gas [@Johnson1974; @TheRag1975; @Wilson1993]. -Although reports are conflicting on details, guards started fogging and gassing prisoners who were, at most, rattling their doors [@Hobbs1974]. -The likely reason for the barrage was retaliatory, as it was "unjustified" according to a veteran guard [@Coffey1975a]. - -During the gassings, a pepper fogger was specifically used in the building and created "fumes of gas [that] were awfully heavy, one of the worst I've ever seen" according to veteran corrections officers' trial testimony [@Allen1975b; @Coffey1975a]. -The gassing lasted for four hours despite yells for help, resulting in serious injuries including burned and blistered skin, eyes swollen shut, and breathing difficulties [@Coffey1975b]. -That intense fogging and lack of medical attention over the next two days were main factors contributing to Forsythe's injuries and death two days later, according to medical experts' testimony [@Allen1974b; @Allen1975a; @Allen1975b]. - -Although the guards involved were indicted by a grand jury and brought to trial, they ultimately were acquitted of all charges [@UPI1975a; @UPI1975b]. - - - -## Union Correctional {-} - -According to the superintendent, a riot was caused in the Florida State Prison's Union Correctional Institution in Raiford on July 5th, 1981 by 22 prisoners who were intoxicated, and the only way to subdue them was to deploy a thermal fogger [@TallahasseeDemocrat1981_07_07]. -As a result of two officers being "slightly injured" and three inmates being stabbed, an investigation was launched that caused the event to be picked up in the newspapers [@TallahasseeDemocrat1981_07_07]. - - -## Dade County {-} - -Dade County Sheriffs used foggers to sweep a field on July 17th 1974 in search of a murder suspect that had eluded K-9 units, helicopters, a plane, and an attempt to flush him out by burning the field [@TampaBayTimes1974_07_18]. -The suspect was so well dug in that he could withstand significant gassing that surprised a Sheriff's sergeant who participated in the operation [@TampaBayTimes1974_07_18]. - diff --git a/_book/70-accidents.md b/_book/70-accidents.md deleted file mode 100644 index 289222d..0000000 --- a/_book/70-accidents.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Accidents {-} - -### Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment {-} - -While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation [@Judd1981]. -On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their "victim" and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains [@Judd1981]. - -Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training [@Judd1981]. -Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds [@TheCourierJournal1982_01_10], indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use "safe" smoke. diff --git a/_book/80-cbp.md b/_book/80-cbp.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8b84200..0000000 --- a/_book/80-cbp.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ - - - -# Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging {- #CBP} - -United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently [@Miller2019]. -Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. - -### International Trafficking {-} - -Within a year and a half of the fogger's arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. -During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. -Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. -Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State [@DailyNews1972_10_27]. -Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position [@ValleyMorningStar1973_08_04]. - -Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the 'Drug War' [@Chepesiuk1999], it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. - -### BORTAC {-} - -By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings [@CBP2006; @CBP2014; @CBP2018]. -BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; @CBP2006), providing a wide range of services [@CBP2014; @Miller2019]. -BORTAC's specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers [@CBP2006; @CBP2014], noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States [carceral system](@CarceralSystem). - -BORTAC would be the unit to bring the thermal fogger back to use against domestic civilian protesters during the [Black Lives Matter](#PortlandOR2020_07_29) and [Ablolish ICE](#PortlandORICE2020_2021) protests in Portland Oregon during 2020 and 2021. -Indeed, Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico [@Borunda2020]. - diff --git a/_book/90-science.md b/_book/90-science.md deleted file mode 100644 index 703af5f..0000000 --- a/_book/90-science.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ - - - -# The Science of Thermal Fogging {- #Science} - -The concept behind using a thermal fogger to disperse chemical weapons is known as [pulsejet technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsejet), which is indeed a jet propulsion method. -For the purposes of thermal fogging, the chemicals are heated to ~1400 degrees Celsius (C) in a combustion chamber and the fogger uses airflow to push the chemical mixture out a long nozzle resonator that cools the fog to 100-500 C before it is blown out as fog that cools as it hits air. - -
- -(ref:imgCrockett1969) Concept drawing from the International Association of Chiefs of Police chemical agents manual [@Crockett1969]. - -
-B/W image drawing with text from an old white paper book. The text says FOG DISSEMINATION at the top then a paragraph with `Fog dissemination devices operate by rapidly vaporizing a high boiling point liquid agent formulation. This is accomplished by injecting the liquid agent into a hot gas flow and allowing the vaporized agent to contact the cooler ambient air where the agent condenses into a fog and ultimately into extremely small agent particles.` In the middle is the drawing with a square on the left with a long rectangle coming out of it to the right with a cloud out the further end of the rectangle. There are bits of text around it, pointing to the box it says `FUEL`, `SPARK`, and `COMBUSTION CHAMBER`. in the middle of the rectange it says `HOT GASES` in the middle of arrows pointing out towards the cloud. Along the rectangle another injection area is noted for `Liquid Agent Injection` Text on the bottom says `FIGURE 4. FOG DISSEMINATION. A liquid chemical agent is vaporized by a hot gas flow and released as a fog cloud`. -

(\#fig:imgCrockett1969)(ref:imgCrockett1969)

-
- -
- -Although the mixture does cool considerably from its peak temperature before being released, the chemicals were heated to such high temperatures that they will thermally decompose, creating a much more toxic mixture of gasses. -Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of [CN gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride) (248 C @Compton1987), [CS gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CS_gas) (450 - 550 C; @Xueetal2015), [Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper_spray) (< 200 C; @HendersonandHenderson1992), and [Terephthalic Acid (TPA) smoke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terephthalic_acid) (445 C; @KimyonokandUluturk2016) are well below the temperatures achieved in a thermal fogger. - -As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixture is likely to have considerably higher toxicity than product labels and safety data sheets indicate. diff --git a/_book/99-references.md b/_book/99-references.md index 2801405..230cbd2 100644 --- a/_book/99-references.md +++ b/_book/99-references.md @@ -1,4 +1,5 @@ -# References {- #References} + +# References {- #References} diff --git a/_book/BerkeleyCA1968-08-31.html b/_book/BerkeleyCA1968-08-31.html index 915555f..462743c 100644 --- a/_book/BerkeleyCA1968-08-31.html +++ b/_book/BerkeleyCA1968-08-31.html @@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
    • +
  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! -
    • -
  • University Cities -
    • -
  • High Schools +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • Racial Justice +
  • Broadening Application
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -202,9 +200,7 @@

    Berkeley, August 31


    - - @@ -233,7 +229,7 @@

    Berkeley, August 31

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/05-the_conventions.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/04-conventions.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -244,7 +240,7 @@

    Berkeley, August 31

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/BigMac.html b/_book/BigMac.html index 35bdeb4..aa92d4d 100644 --- a/_book/BigMac.html +++ b/_book/BigMac.html @@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
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  • Introduction
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  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
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  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
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  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • University Cities +
  • Broadening Application
    • -
  • High Schools -
    • -
  • Racial Justice -
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -220,7 +218,7 @@

    Big Mac

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/12-the_carceral_system.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/07-the_carceral_system.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -231,7 +229,7 @@

    Big Mac

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/CBP.html b/_book/CBP.html index 10f77c4..8241601 100644 --- a/_book/CBP.html +++ b/_book/CBP.html @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - - - + + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
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  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! -
    • -
  • University Cities -
    • -
  • High Schools +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • Racial Justice +
  • Broadening Application
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -182,32 +180,14 @@

    Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging

    United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently (Miller 2019). Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces.

    -
    -

    International Trafficking

    -

    Within a year and a half of the fogger’s arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. -During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government (Star Tribune 1973). -Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations (Star Tribune 1973). -Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State (United Press International 1972). -Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position (Star Tribune 1973).

    -

    Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the ‘Drug War’ (Chepesiuk 1999), it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event.

    -
    -
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    BORTAC

    -

    By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings (USCBP 2006, 2014, 2018). -BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; USCBP (2006)), providing a wide range of services (USCBP 2014; Miller 2019). -BORTAC’s specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers (USCBP 2006, 2014), noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States carceral system.

    -

    BORTAC would be the unit to bring the thermal fogger back to use against domestic civilian protesters during the Black Lives Matter and Ablolish ICE protests in Portland Oregon during 2020 and 2021. -Indeed, Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico (Borunda 2020).

    - -
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    BORTAC

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/14-cbp.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/08-cbp.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -240,7 +220,7 @@

    BORTAC

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/CarceralSystem.html b/_book/CarceralSystem.html index fb1897c..c1827f1 100644 --- a/_book/CarceralSystem.html +++ b/_book/CarceralSystem.html @@ -24,14 +24,14 @@ - + - - + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
    • +
  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
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  • University Cities +
  • Broadening Application
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  • High Schools -
    • -
  • Racial Justice -
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
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  • The Carceral System
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  • Accidents
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  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
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  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
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  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -189,7 +187,7 @@

    The Carceral System

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    The Carceral System

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/12-the_carceral_system.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/07-the_carceral_system.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -223,7 +221,7 @@

    The Carceral System

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/ChicagoIL1968-08-26.html b/_book/ChicagoIL1968-08-26.html index 20ccbd6..6bf3701 100644 --- a/_book/ChicagoIL1968-08-26.html +++ b/_book/ChicagoIL1968-08-26.html @@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
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  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
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  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! +
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  • University Cities +
  • Broadening Application
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  • Labor
  • Celebrations
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  • Trainging Accidents
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    Chicago, August 26 - 29

    Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the Democratic National Convention, and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops (Taylor and Morris 2018)) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news (Schultz 1969; Karnow 1983; Farber 1988; Langguth 2000). After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons (Taylor and Morris 2018).

    -

    Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in Berkeley the year later states

    +

    Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in Berkeley the year later states

    A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - Associated Press (1969b)

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    Chicago, August 26 - 29

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/05-the_conventions.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/04-conventions.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -228,7 +226,7 @@

    Chicago, August 26 - 29

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/CollegeParkMD1970-05-04.html b/_book/CollegeParkMD1970-05-04.html deleted file mode 100644 index 3fba837..0000000 --- a/_book/CollegeParkMD1970-05-04.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,265 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - - College Park | The Thermal Fogger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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    On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixon’s expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park (Washington Area Spark 2013). -Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus (Cabe 1970). -By later in the day, UMD students had heard about the Ohio National Guard shooting four Kent State students and took up a position in front on and inside the UMD Chapel (Washington Area Spark 2013), which did not stop the chemical weapons barrage or the use of the fogger specifically (Oates 1970)

    -


    - -
    -Black and white photo of a college quad with brick facade white column buildingsbehind trees around the left, back, and part of right sides of the frame. Eight or so police officers walking away from the camera wear riot gear. A few in dark, a few in light. One in light near the front is carrying a fogger with a shoulder strap and spraying a big cloud off to the left, obscuring a large portion of the photograph. -

    -Figure 38: Police fog the University of Maryland (Cabe 1970). -

    -
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    - -
    -Black and white photo of a college A whole bunch of police officers stand on or in front of a short (3 ft) brick wall surrounding the open field. A road, grass, and sidewalk are on this side of the wall, and a tree is just over it on that side. The open field behind the wall is filled with fog from one or perhaps two individuals fogging the chapel, which is where a large crowd gathers on the steps in the background. The chapel has a brick facade and white columns and a very large spire clock tower. The student protesters are visible on the steps of the chapel holding sigms. -

    -Figure 39: Police fog the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970). -

    -
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    -

    The Maryland State Police liked the GOEC fogger so much they included it in their Manual on Civil Disturbances as a tool for deploying CS gas (Maryland State Police 1972):

    -


    - -
    -Black and white photo of a GOEC Pepper Fog fogger on a white ground with a maryland state police badge and in front of a brick wall. The fogger is in the mid right and points off to the left. -

    -Figure 40: Maryland State Police’s GOEC pepper fogger (Maryland State Police 1972). -

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    Conclusion

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    Although the use of a thermal fogger by US CBP to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protesters in Portland in 2020 and 2021 appeared novel to many, the truth is that it is just the most recent chapter in acylical narrative stretching back half a century and spanning the globe.

    +

    Spawned from the US military occupation of Vietnam, the thermal fogger has always been a tool for suppressing resistance among the populace. +Its initial transition to the American homefront was rapid and smooth, with retired military law enforcement eager to deploy them against civil rights and anti-war protesters.

    +

    As the fogger grew less popular with police and faded from public view in the past few decades, its use was maintained in the carceral system +Simultaneously, foggers were peddled by US CBP Agents overseas – a second deployment. +Agents from the same units within CBP then brought the fogger back home again, for a second return.

    +

    Throughout all of this, the fogger was used to maim and even kill individuals while targeting the marginalized, many of whom have stories that have not been heard publicly. +I hope that through this work, I can call attention to the shared history across generations, spark conversations, and facilitate story telling to illuminate the impacts of the thermal fogger on human people beings.

    +

    Building on the concept of an Imperial Boomerang, I propose that the trajectory of the thermal fogger can be thought of as an Imperial Tetherball, with multiple depatures and returns. +Key questions from my perspective are then:

    +
      +
    • what perpetuates the momentum of the fogger, facilitating it to swing around more than once?
      • +
    • what routes exist for subsequent rotations where the fogger could be deployed overseas and then brought home again?
      • +
    +

    Clearly, this topic deserves more theoretical evaluation, as well.

    +

    While the thermal fogger is still presently in play in Portland, countless other departments around the world have these machines of war sitting in their arsenals, primed and ready.

    +

    And we still don’t even know what comes out of the exhaust nozzle.

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    • -
  • Foreword
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  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
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  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
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  • University Cities +
  • Broadening Application
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  • High Schools -
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  • Racial Justice -
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  • Racial Justice
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    What About Not In Tunnels?

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    Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members (Monhollon 2002). -The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards (Monhollon 2002).

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    Black students had occuppied the principal’s office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school (Monhollon 2002). -Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers (Monhollon 2002). -The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout (Monhollon 2002).

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    The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the GOEC Pepper Fog fogger:

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    -yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger. -

    -Figure 42: Police bring a GOEC pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School (University of Kansas Archives 1970). -

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    Miami, August 8

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    Miami, August 8

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    Gary Wills

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    Gary Wills

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    References

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    Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) (United Press International 1969a) on November 20, 1969 references a “recent” use of the fogger on students.

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    -Figure 41: Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School (United Press International 1969b). -

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    Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. -On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a “major racial confrontation” among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus (Yetzer et al. 1971).

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    The Science of Thermal Fogging

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    The Science of Thermal Fogging

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    The 1968 Conventions

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    The Return

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    Domestic Applications

    As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976), the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people (Graham 2013).

    Indeed, it took just three years from initial deployment in Vietnam on October 8 1965 to first application in the United States to gas Black racial justice protesters in Miami, Florida on August 8th, 1968 during the Liberty City Riots (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018).

    In alignment with the general “Imperial Circuit of Tear Gas” (Schrader 2019) between the US and Vietnam, the return of the fogger was aided significantly by the weapons industry, militarization of US police forces, transition of veterans to law enforcement upon returning home, and substantial propaganda in specialized and generalized outlets.

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    The Return

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    The Return

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    The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century (USMACV 1965; Bunker 1996).


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    Acknowledgments

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    My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. +I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobby’s murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. +I hope that by shining a light on his story now, more people will come to understand just how horrendous the prison system is and fight for its abolition.

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    The story of Robert Forsythe is almost certainly not unique, and only public knowledge because of the trial against the corrections officers. +I recognize that many others have been killed by thermal foggers, yet we will never know their names.

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    This booklet is based on a variety of sources past and present, and to the journalists and photographers: thank you for sharing your work with the world.

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    I have no idea how many people have been involved in digitizing historical newspapers, as their names are never on anything, but y’all are fantastic and I appreciate you so much.

    +

    Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images.

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    Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the Lawrence High School protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful.

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    Christophe Dervieux provided an example of how to render figure alt-text in an appendix: https://cderv.rbind.io/2021/06/29/fig-alt-appendix/.

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    The cover image is based on Lewis-Rolland (2021a).

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    Author Position

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    I, Dr. Juniper L. Simonis (they/them/theirs), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. +I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcement’s chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment.

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    I have a PhD in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Cornell, where I studied aquatic ecology and biogeochemistry – disciplines I have put to use to studying the impact of chemical weapons. +Through my ecological research, I have uncovered historical and current information into the impacts of chemical weapons that I was not seeing being represented in the present day broad cultural discourse.

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    From this need to share historical information came this book, a way for me to pass along a window into the racist, classist, capitalistic, and colonialistic throughline of the thermal fogger.

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    I am an abolitionist in multiple senses: I believe that the use of chemical weapons, police, and the carceral system should all be abolished, full-stop.

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    Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a deep connection to my protest elders who experienced thermal foggers decades ago. +I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. +We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people.

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    February 21 1969

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    A year after using the fogger on a protest held in solidarity with the Chicago Protest, police in Berkeley again deployed a fogger to clear demonstrators including striking students from outside a University Regents and Sproul Hall plaza on the University of California campus.

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    -B/W newspaper clipping. Four people walking towards camera wearing helmets with face shields. Person on the left wearing white shirt and tie has several items hanging from belt. In right hand carrying radio with extended antenna. On right side person dressed in all black standing with a wide stance and holding pepper-fogger at hip height in right hand aimed forward. In center two more people dressed in all black, one with a short stick or club in left hand. Background is mostly cloudy with someone behind white shirt person, holding some sort of stick aloft. Glimpses of additional bodies are visible in the cloudy background. -

    -Figure 33: Police use a pepper fogger and other chemical weapons to clear a University plaza (Associated Press 1969j). -

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    This deployment was covered in papers across the country including the Press-Telegram (Long Beach, California) (Associated Press 1969g), The Jackson Sun (Jackson, Tennessee) (Associated Press 1969c), The Daily Tribune (Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969b), The Sumter Daily Item (Sumter, South Carolina) (Associated Press 1969d), The New Mexican (Santa Fe, New Mexico) (Associated Press 1969e), Janesville Daily Gazette (Janesville, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969h), and Messenger-Inquirer (Owensboro, Kentucky) (Associated Press 1969i).

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    -Figure 34: Police engulf a University plaza in chemical fog (Associated Press 1969j). -

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    Canadian newspapers detailed the fogger use as well, specifically the Red Deer Advocate Red Deer, Alberta, Canada) (Associated Press 1969f) and The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan) (Associated Press 1969a).

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    The following week, the police in Berkeley were joined by California National Guard troops to attack strikers, and continued to use the pepper fogger (Associated Press 1969m, 1969n).

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    -Figure 35: National guardsmen and police fog UC Berkeley (Associated Press 1969k). -

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    -Figure 36: View from behind of the police using a pepper fogger on striking students (Associated Press 1969l). -

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    Alameda County sheriffs deployed a pepper fogger on UC Berkeley’s campus again during the “People’s Park Riots” of 1969 (Los Angeles Times 1969; Hayes 1970).

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    The riot apparently started when the university tried to prevent individuals living on the street from a volunteer-run park they built on a lot owned by the school (United Press International 1970).

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    The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this time fogged neighborhoods from the back of a Jeep:

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    - - - - - - - - - - - - - - diff --git a/_book/PortlandOR2020-2021.html b/_book/bortac.html similarity index 73% rename from _book/PortlandOR2020-2021.html rename to _book/bortac.html index 5ab490c..d05dd38 100644 --- a/_book/PortlandOR2020-2021.html +++ b/_book/bortac.html @@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ - Portland OR | The Thermal Fogger + BORTAC | The Thermal Fogger - + @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ - + @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - - - + + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
    • +
  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! -
    • -
  • University Cities -
    • -
  • High Schools +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • Racial Justice +
  • Broadening Application
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,10 +176,18 @@

    -
    -

    Portland OR

    -
    -

    July 29 2020

    +
    +

    BORTAC

    +

    By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings (USCBP 2006, 2014, 2018). +BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; USCBP (2006)), providing a wide range of services (USCBP 2014; Miller 2019). +BORTAC’s specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers (USCBP 2006, 2014), noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States carceral system.

    +

    Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico (Borunda 2020).

    +
    +

    Portland OR

    +

    The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests (PB2020 Team 2021). +Since then, the fogger has been deployed three additional times by CBP in Portland, all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront.

    +
    +

    July 29 2020

    At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to “protect” federal property in Portland, OR (USDHS 2020; Flanigan 2020; Trump 2020). During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger (Sal 2020a), which has been identified through photos as an IGEBA TF35 thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while “training tool for military/law enforcement” is listed among its uses (Nixalite 2009a), its safety requirements explicitly state:

    @@ -193,13 +199,13 @@

    July 29 2020

    Fully riot-geared and for some reason in green camo US Homeland Security agents (to the middle and the left of the photo) behind a row of two-foot tall, one-foot radius metal posts, behind a metal grate wall over 7 feet tall with metal support beams and concrete pylon buttressing. In the front of the left side is an agent holding a plastic clear riot shield, through which you can see a patch that say 'Border Patrol Federal Agent' in yellow and some insignia patches as well. In the middle are the agents in camo, one with a hand on the shoulder of another who is operating a thermal fogger machine shooting gas through the fence. The machine is maybe four or five feet long and has a body not unlike a bush whacker with a two-cycle engine, but fueling a vaporizer instead of a rotor. The agent is holding the machine with their right hand visibly and there is a black strap across their shoulder holding it up. The machine is mostly shiny metal, although the tip is showing signs of corrosion (no surprise based on the compounds and heat) and the supports of the body are a bright green.

    -Figure 43: CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse (Brown 2020). +Figure 45: CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse (Brown 2020).


    -
    -

    Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property

    +
    +

    Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property

    While the thermal fogger hasn’t been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Simonis 2021) – the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 (Dubois 2018).

    The first of such deployments occurred during the fall of 2020.

    Along with cities across the country, Portland hosted many events on October 17th focused around the racial and gender justice (Sal 2020b). @@ -210,13 +216,13 @@

    Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property

    One person in green protective gear, wearing a bulletproof vest with weapons strapped to the body and wearing a helmet and gas mask is walking to the left carrying a fogger in the right hand arm extended down, nozzle pointing forward. A cloud of gas is coming from the nozzle. Next to them is someone dressed all in black with a bullet proof vest with the word POLICE across the back, also wearing a helmet and gas mask. It is night and there are additional clouds of gas and the shapes of people in the background. source: https://twitter.com/MasonLakePhoto/status/1317869903345414144

    -Figure 44: CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood (Lake 2020). +Figure 46: CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood (Lake 2020).


    -
    -

    Inaugration 2021

    +
    +

    Inaugration 2021

    The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day (“J20”) Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building (Sal 2021a). The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school (Sal 2021a; Simonis 2021).


    @@ -224,7 +230,7 @@

    Inaugration 2021

    Night in a city, building lights in the background. One person standing alone in the center of a road, shown from the waist to the ankles. The person is wearing work pants with covered pockets at the thighs and calves, long sleeve shirt, and a glove on the right hand. In the left hand they are gripping the handle of a neon green fogger tool. The long black nozzle, covered with a wire cage, projects backwards and the motor is towards the front. It is being held at hip height; the arm holding it is relaxed down.

    -Figure 45: CBP officer holding thermal fogger (Staab 2021). +Figure 47: CBP officer holding thermal fogger (Staab 2021).


    @@ -234,7 +240,7 @@

    Inaugration 2021

    Night time with the light from a street light visible in the background. Two officers dressed in full protective gear with bulletproof vests holding supplies on, with the word POLICE stenciled in yellow. They are both wearing helmets and gas masks. The nearer one is holding a gas fogger in the right hand. Thefogger looks like a long tube between 3 and 4 feet long with a handle and motor parts near the back. The tube is covered with a wire cage until about the last half foot, which is a plain and narrower tube. Behind these two officers are some dimly lit buildings and one or two other officers but they are not clear.

    -Figure 46: CBP agent holding thermal fogger (Lewis-Rolland 2021a). +Figure 48: CBP agent holding thermal fogger (Lewis-Rolland 2021a).


    @@ -243,11 +249,12 @@

    Inaugration 2021

    Nine people wearing full protective gear including helmets and gas masks standing spread out across a street at night. One is holding a gas fogger in one hand and gas is spewing and a cloud is forming in front of them. There is also some gas cloud behind the group. All of them seem to be wearing weapons on their gear but details are not clear. It is night. There is a grey building in the background with a red door and red trim. A white stripe on the roadway has the words MELT ICE spray painted on it.

    -Figure 47: CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Lewis-Rolland 2021b). +Figure 49: CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Lewis-Rolland 2021b).


    +
    @@ -256,8 +263,8 @@

    Inaugration 2021

    - - + +
    @@ -279,7 +286,7 @@

    Inaugration 2021

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/09-racial_justice.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/08-cbp.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -290,7 +297,7 @@

    Inaugration 2021

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/national-guard.html b/_book/broadening-application.html similarity index 68% rename from _book/national-guard.html rename to _book/broadening-application.html index 3b590a4..cd4ec89 100644 --- a/_book/national-guard.html +++ b/_book/broadening-application.html @@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ - National Guard | The Thermal Fogger + Broadening Application | The Thermal Fogger - + @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ - + @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - - - + + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
    • +
  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • University Cities +
  • Broadening Application
    • -
  • High Schools -
    • -
  • Racial Justice -
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,17 +176,17 @@

    -
    -

    National Guard

    -

    Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of “less lethal” options (Bandy 1970).

    +
    +

    Broadening Application

    +

    The use of foggers, while not commonly overt, spread throughout the 1970s and 1980s, occasionally making an appearance in news media reports.

    - - + + @@ -210,7 +208,7 @@

    National Guard

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-the_spread.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-broaden.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -221,7 +219,7 @@

    National Guard

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/celebrations.html b/_book/celebrations.html index 413242b..eb91a38 100644 --- a/_book/celebrations.html +++ b/_book/celebrations.html @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
    • +
  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! -
    • -
  • University Cities +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • High Schools +
  • Broadening Application
    • -
  • Racial Justice -
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,9 +176,13 @@

    -
    -

    Celebrations

    -

    On occassion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse.

    +
    +

    Celebrations

    +

    On occasion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse.

    +
    +

    1974 NHRA Nationals

    +

    Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association’s US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 (Associated Press 1974b, 1974a).

    +

    1975 New Years Eve

    New Year’s Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force (United Press International 1976a). @@ -190,16 +192,11 @@

    1975 New Years Eve

    B/W image: Two people in foreground wearing helmets and face shields with gas masks and uniforms with short sleeves walking towards the camera, carrying boxy looking tools with nozzles pointing forward, with both hands. Person behind, also in short sleeve uniform, helmet, and gas mask carrying slim sabre or rod across the body. Behind these people seem to be more people but there are no clear details.

    -Figure 49: Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach (United Press International 1975a). +Figure 44: Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach (United Press International 1975a).


    The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette (United Press International 1976b) as well as the Tampa Tribune (United Press International 1976a).

    -
    -
    -

    1974 NHRA Nationals

    -

    Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association’s US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 (Associated Press 1974b, 1974a).

    -
    @@ -208,7 +205,7 @@

    1974 NHRA Nationals

    - + @@ -230,7 +227,7 @@

    1974 NHRA Nationals

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/11-celebrations.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-broaden.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -241,7 +238,7 @@

    1974 NHRA Nationals

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you.html b/_book/coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you.html index 283e638..3181f7b 100644 --- a/_book/coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you.html +++ b/_book/coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you.html @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
  • Foreword
    • +
  • Preface +
  • Introduction
    • -
  • Vietnam +
  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • University Cities +
  • Broadening Application
    • -
  • High Schools -
    • -
  • Racial Justice -
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,18 +176,114 @@

    -
    -

    Coming Soon To A Town Near You!

    +
    +

    Coming Soon To A Town Near You!

    Following the conventions, the fogger quickly became a part of the law enforcement arsenal. US police had a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out across the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s (The McHenry Plaindealer 1971).

    +
    +

    Illinois

    +

    In the wake of the 1968 Democratic National Convention, Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. +The pepper fogger was touted as being able to “empty a house fast” by Cook County Illinois Sheriff Joseph Woods (Harris 1969b, 1969c), a definitely off-spec and dangerous use (Nixalite 2009b). +The volume of fog emitted was also said to be able to fill Soldier Field (capacity 61,500 fans) in under a minute (Harris 1969c). +Regardless, the Chicago-area Sheriff decided they needed three of them (Harris 1969c). +The Sheriff’s Major in charge of chemical arsenal Anthony Yucevicius noted the fogger’s psychological effect on recipients, as well saying

    +
    +

    They make a terrifying noise and probably will have a scare effect on crowds.

    +

    — Harris (1969a).

    +
    +

    Use expanded among and within states, as by 1972 the Illinois State Police also purchased three foggers, which they trained with in Springfield (Robinson 1972). +In news reports, the foggers were described as

    +
    +

    a cross between a machine gun, a power lawn mower, and a sun lamp.

    +

    — Robinson (1972).

    +
    +
    +
    +

    Florida

    +

    Similarly, following the 1968 Republican National Convention, Florida law enforcement took to the fogger (Cain 1968). +In Sanford (1970 pop. 17,393; USCB (1971)), the local police department purchased a fogger for use with CN gas, noting that it could shoot fog 20 ft for up to a 15 minute stretch, and so would be effective for controlling large masses (Cain 1968). +They had, however, only used it in training and for demoing to the media (Cain 1968).

    +


    + +
    +Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). +

    +Figure 27: Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). +

    +
    +


    +
    +
    +

    California

    +

    Eager to not be shown up by the police in Berkeley, by 1970, the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department had already purchased their own fogger for their “big artillery” to use “when other forms of persuasion have failed” and started a media campaign (Michals 1970). +The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chemical weapons use, which was set up through Officer Robert Hawkins (Michals 1970).

    +


    + +
    +Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). +

    +Figure 28: Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). +

    +
    +


    +
    +
    +

    National Guard

    +

    Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of “less lethal” options (Bandy 1970).

    +
    +
    +

    Small Town USA

    +

    No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. +The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; USCB (1971)) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 (Box Elder Agencies 1971).

    +

    Police Chief Jay Christensen noted that the fogger provides a longer shelf-life than grenades and reportage noted that it

    +
    +

    emits a continuous stream of smoke, chemical irritants, or whatever solution is fed into it. [emphasis added]

    +

    — Robinson (1972)

    +
    +

    Use of federal funds to purchase chemical weapons, and specifically foggers, was not limited to one department. +Cities, counties, and states across the country used Omnibus Crime Bill money to up their chemical weapons caches, including foggers (Conheim 1972). +For example, Oakland County in Michigan (1970 pop. 907,871; USCB (1971)) purchased two pepper foggers for their South County Tactical Mobile Unit with part of their $21,066 in 1970 (Conheim 1972).

    +

    Oneota New York (1970 pop. 16,030; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1969 during the anti-war demonstrations, although the department bungled its response to protests (Griffin 1973). +As came to light during a public probe, Oneota Police Chief Joseph F. DeSalvatore requested a limited amount of training in the budget, and officers were therefore unable to deploy the fogger or other chemical weapons (Griffin 1973).

    +

    Gaston County North Caolina (1970 pop. 47,322; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs purchased a fogger, which they turned on but not used to dispense agents multiple times by 1970 in their jail system “when there’s been trouble brewing” (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970a).

    +


    + +
    +Gaston County Sheriff’s Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). +

    +Figure 29: Gaston County Sheriff’s Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). +

    +
    +


    +

    Apparently the threat of death by chemical weapons fog is sufficient to scare detained individuals into compliance.

    +

    Within a few years, however, departments began to realize they had no need for the machines, and began selling them with no use aside from testing (Des Moines Tribune 1975). +The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1971 in advance of a motorcycle rally that never happened, and used free advertising in local media in attempts to pawn it (Des Moines Tribune 1975). +The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers “on occasion” in Des Moines (Iowa’s capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; USCB (1971)) in addition to one instance on the University of Iowa’s campus (Des Moines Tribune 1975), although I have not located contemporaneous mentions.

    +
    +
    +

    Crossing to Canada

    +

    Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use (Patterson 1976). +A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers (Patterson 1976).

    +


    + +
    +Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). +

    +Figure 30: Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). +

    +
    +


    + +
    +
    - + @@ -211,7 +305,7 @@

    Coming Soon To A Town Near You!

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-the_spread.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/04-conventions.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -222,7 +316,7 @@

    Coming Soon To A Town Near You!

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/coming-to-your-town-soon.html b/_book/coming-to-your-town-soon.html deleted file mode 100644 index bb9365c..0000000 --- a/_book/coming-to-your-town-soon.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,305 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - - Coming to Your Town Soon! | The Thermal Fogger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
    - -
    - -
    - -
    -
    - - -
    -
    - -
    -
    -

    Coming to Your Town Soon!

    -

    It seems like US domestic police have a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out accross the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s (The McHenry Plaindealer 1971).

    -
    -

    Illinois

    -

    In the wake of the 1968 Democratic National Convention, Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. -The pepper fogger was touted as being able to “empty a house fast” by Cook County Illinois Sheriff Joseph Woods (Harris 1969b, 1969c), a definitely off-spec and dangerous use (Nixalite 2009b). -The volume of fog emitted was also said to be able to fill Soldier Field (capacity 61,500 fans) in under a minute (Harris 1969c). -Regardless, the Chicago-area Sheriff decided they needed three of them (Harris 1969c). -The Sheriff’s Major in charge of chemical arsensal Anthony Yucevicius noted the fogger’s psychological effect on recipients, as well saying

    -
    -

    They make a terrifying noise and probably will have a scare effect on crowds. - Harris (1969a).

    -
    -

    Use expanded among and within states, as by 1972 the Illinois State Police also purchased three foggers, which they trained with in Springfield (Robinson 1972). -In news reports, the foggers were described as

    -
    -

    a cross between a machine gun, a power lawn mower, and a sun lamp. - Robinson (1972).

    -
    -
    -
    -

    Florida

    -

    Similarly, following the 1968 Republican National Convention, Florida law enforcement took to the fogger (Cain 1968). -In Sanford (1970 pop. 17,393; USCB (1971)), the local police department purchased a fogger for use with CN gas, noting that it could shoot fog 20 ft for up to a 15 minute stretch, and so would be effective for controlling large masses (Cain 1968). -They had, however, only used it in training and for demoing to the media (Cain 1968).

    -


    - -
    -Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). -

    -Figure 23: Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). -

    -
    -


    -
    -
    -

    California

    -

    Eager to not be shown up by the police in Berkeley, by 1970, the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department had already purchased their own fogger for their “big artillery” to use “when other forms of persuasion have failed” and started a media campaign (Michals 1970). -The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chemical weapons use, which was set up through Officer Robert Hawkins (Michals 1970).

    -


    - -
    -Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). -

    -Figure 24: Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). -

    -
    -


    -
    -
    -

    National Guard

    -

    Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of “less lethal” options (Bandy 1970).

    -
    -
    -

    Small Town USA

    -

    No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. -The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; USCB (1971)) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 (Box Elder Agencies 1971).

    -

    Police Chief Jay Christensen noted that the fogger provides a longer shelf-life than grenades and reportage noted that it

    -
    -

    emits a continuous stream of smoke, chemical irritants, or whatever solution is fed into it. [emphasis added] - Robinson (1972)

    -
    -

    Use of federal funds to purchase chemical weapons, and specifically foggers, was not limited to one department. -Cities, counties, and states across the country used Omnibus Crime Bill money to up their chemical weapons caches, including foggers (Conheim 1972). -For example, Oakland County in Michigan (1970 pop. 907,871; USCB (1971)) purchased two pepper foggers for their South County Tactical Mobile Unit with part of their $21,066 in 1970 (Conheim 1972).

    -

    Oneota New York (1970 pop. 16,030; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1969 during the anti-war demonstrations, although the department bungled its response to protests (Griffin 1973). -As came to light during a public probe, Oneota Police Chief Joseph F. DeSalvatore requested a limited amount of training in the budget, and officers were therefore unable to deploy the fogger or other chemical weapons (Griffin 1973).

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    Gaston County North Caolina (1970 pop. 47,322; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs purchased a fogger, which they turned on but not used to dispense agents multiple times by 1970 in their jail system “when there’s been trouble brewing” (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970a).

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    -Gaston County Sheriff’s Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). -

    -Figure 25: Gaston County Sheriff’s Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). -

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    Within a few years, however, departments began to realize they had no need for the machines, and began selling them with no use aside from testing (Des Moines Tribune 1975). -The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1971 in advance of a motorcycle rally that never happened, and used free advertising in local media in attempts to pawn it (Des Moines Tribune 1975). -The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers “on occasion” in Des Moines (Iowa’s capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; USCB (1971)) in addition to one instance on the University of Iowa’s campus (Des Moines Tribune 1975), although I have not located contemporaneous mentions.

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    Content Warning

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    This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. +Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. +Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers.

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    Danville IL

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/context.html b/_book/context.html index ffe4837..2ce8fd2 100644 --- a/_book/context.html +++ b/_book/context.html @@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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    Tunnels

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    Contribute Information

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    If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out via the Chem Weapons Research Website or submit an issue or pull request on our GitHub repository for the book.

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    Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use (Patterson 1976). -A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers (Patterson 1976).

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    -Figure 26: Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). -

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    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/durham.html b/_book/durham.html deleted file mode 100644 index 6a68afe..0000000 --- a/_book/durham.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,254 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - - Durham | The Thermal Fogger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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    Durham North Carolina Police broke up the “Allen Building Demonstration” taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger (Jolley and Olive 1969; Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b). -The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel (Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b).

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    -Figure 31: Deployment of a thermal fogger by police on Duke Campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). -

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    -Figure 32: Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). -

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    Financial Statement

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    All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. +No external funding was provided.

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    + + + + + + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/_book/_main.epub b/_book/fogger_book.epub similarity index 86% rename from _book/_main.epub rename to _book/fogger_book.epub index 34a1bf9..370993f 100644 Binary files a/_book/_main.epub and b/_book/fogger_book.epub differ diff --git a/_book/_main.pdf b/_book/fogger_book.pdf similarity index 94% rename from _book/_main.pdf rename to _book/fogger_book.pdf index ae82f4e..62dd2d2 100644 Binary files a/_book/_main.pdf and b/_book/fogger_book.pdf differ diff --git a/_book/_main.tex b/_book/fogger_book.tex similarity index 92% rename from _book/_main.tex rename to _book/fogger_book.tex index b2c48c2..85db7eb 100644 --- a/_book/_main.tex +++ b/_book/fogger_book.tex @@ -1,22 +1,11 @@ % Options for packages loaded elsewhere \PassOptionsToPackage{unicode}{hyperref} \PassOptionsToPackage{hyphens}{url} -\PassOptionsToPackage{dvipsnames,svgnames,x11names}{xcolor} +\PassOptionsToPackage{dvipsnames,svgnames*,x11names*}{xcolor} % \documentclass[ 11pt, -]{krantz} -\title{The Thermal Fogger} -\usepackage{etoolbox} -\makeatletter -\providecommand{\subtitle}[1]{% add subtitle to \maketitle - \apptocmd{\@title}{\par {\large #1 \par}}{}{} -} -\makeatother -\subtitle{An Imperial Tetherball} -\author{Dr.~Juniper L. Simonis} -\date{2021-06-27} - + titlepage]{krantz} \usepackage{amsmath,amssymb} \usepackage{lmodern} \usepackage{iftex} @@ -188,6 +177,8 @@ } \makeatother +\usepackage{pdfpages} + \frontmatter \ifLuaTeX \usepackage{selnolig} % disable illegal ligatures @@ -195,9 +186,21 @@ \usepackage[]{natbib} \bibliographystyle{apalike} +\title{The Thermal Fogger} +\usepackage{etoolbox} +\makeatletter +\providecommand{\subtitle}[1]{% add subtitle to \maketitle + \apptocmd{\@title}{\par {\large #1 \par}}{}{} +} +\makeatother +\subtitle{An Imperial Tetherball} +\author{Dr.~Juniper L. Simonis} +\date{2021-07-05} + \begin{document} \maketitle + %\cleardoublepage\newpage\thispagestyle{empty}\null %\cleardoublepage\newpage\thispagestyle{empty}\null @@ -210,12 +213,14 @@ \tableofcontents } \listoffigures -\hypertarget{foreword}{% -\chapter*{Foreword}\label{foreword}} +\hypertarget{preface}{% +\chapter*{Preface}\label{preface}} + +\href{https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4850406}{An archived version of this book is available on Zenodo}. \hypertarget{content-warning}{% -\subsection*{Content Warning}\label{content-warning}} +\section*{Content Warning}\label{content-warning}} This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. @@ -223,7 +228,7 @@ \subsection*{Content Warning}\label{content-warning}} Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers. \hypertarget{land-acknowledgment}{% -\subsection*{Land Acknowledgment}\label{land-acknowledgment}} +\section*{Land Acknowledgment}\label{land-acknowledgment}} This work's impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America -- the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima. @@ -237,7 +242,7 @@ \subsection*{Land Acknowledgment}\label{land-acknowledgment}} I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear. \hypertarget{inherent-bias}{% -\subsection*{Inherent Bias}\label{inherent-bias}} +\section*{Inherent Bias}\label{inherent-bias}} This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. @@ -245,7 +250,7 @@ \subsection*{Inherent Bias}\label{inherent-bias}} Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if ``legally required''), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered. \hypertarget{author-position}{% -\subsection*{Author Position}\label{author-position}} +\section*{Author Position}\label{author-position}} I, \href{https://juniperlsimonis.com}{Dr.~Juniper L. Simonis} (\emph{they/them/theirs}), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. @@ -263,21 +268,21 @@ \subsection*{Author Position}\label{author-position}} We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people. \hypertarget{financial-statement}{% -\subsection*{Financial Statement}\label{financial-statement}} +\section*{Financial Statement}\label{financial-statement}} All work for this product was conducted by Dr.~Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. No external funding was provided. \hypertarget{licenses}{% -\subsection*{Licenses}\label{licenses}} +\section*{Licenses}\label{licenses}} This book it created under a \href{https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/blob/main/LICENSE.md}{dual license} that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the \protect\hyperlink{References}{References} and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors. \hypertarget{acknowledgments}{% -\subsection*{Acknowledgments}\label{acknowledgments}} +\section*{Acknowledgments}\label{acknowledgments}} My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. @@ -295,10 +300,12 @@ \subsection*{Acknowledgments}\label{acknowledgments}} Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the \protect\hyperlink{Lawrence1970_04_21}{Lawrence High School} protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful. +Christophe Dervieux provided an example of how to render figure alt-text in an appendix: \url{https://cderv.rbind.io/2021/06/29/fig-alt-appendix/}. + The cover image is based on \citet{Lewis-Rolland2021a}. \hypertarget{contribute-information}{% -\subsection*{Contribute Information}\label{contribute-information}} +\section*{Contribute Information}\label{contribute-information}} If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out \href{https://chemicalweaponsresearch.com/contact/}{via the Chem Weapons Research Website} or submit an \href{https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/issues/new/choose}{issue} or \href{https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/compare}{pull request} on our \href{https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger}{GitHub repository for the book}. @@ -374,7 +381,7 @@ \section*{The Science of Thermal Fogging}\label{Science}} As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixtures are likely to have considerably higher toxicities than product labels and safety sheets indicate, which are already concerning \citep{defteccs}. \hypertarget{Vietnam}{% -\chapter*{Vietnam}\label{Vietnam}} +\chapter*{A Colonial Tool}\label{Vietnam}} The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century \citep{USMACV1965, Bunker1996}. @@ -583,7 +590,7 @@ \section*{International Melting Pot}\label{international-melting-pot}} Unnamed Australian arms experts who spoke on background said there was no application for the fogger in the country \citep{Allen1972}, although that hasn't stopped its use elsewhere. \hypertarget{TheReturn}{% -\chapter*{The Return}\label{TheReturn}} +\chapter*{Domestic Applications}\label{TheReturn}} As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang \citep{Cesaire1950, Arendt1951, Foucault1976}, the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people \citep{Graham2013}. @@ -885,16 +892,12 @@ \section*{Berkeley, August 31}\label{BerkeleyCA1968_08_31}} \end{figure} \hypertarget{coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you}{% -\chapter*{Coming Soon To A Town Near You!}\label{coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you}} +\section*{Coming Soon To A Town Near You!}\label{coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you}} Following the conventions, the fogger quickly became a part of the law enforcement arsenal. US police had a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out across the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s \citep{PlainDealer1971}. -\hypertarget{from-the-conventions-outward}{% -\section*{From the Conventions Outward}\label{from-the-conventions-outward}} - - \hypertarget{illinois}{% \subsection*{Illinois}\label{illinois}} @@ -958,13 +961,13 @@ \subsection*{California}\label{california}} \end{figure} \hypertarget{national-guard}{% -\section*{National Guard}\label{national-guard}} +\subsection*{National Guard}\label{national-guard}} Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of ``less lethal'' options \citep{Bandy1970}. \hypertarget{small-town-usa}{% -\section*{Small Town USA}\label{small-town-usa}} +\subsection*{Small Town USA}\label{small-town-usa}} No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. @@ -1005,7 +1008,7 @@ \section*{Small Town USA}\label{small-town-usa}} The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers ``on occasion'' in Des Moines (Iowa's capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; \citet{USCB1970}) in addition to \protect\hyperlink{IowaCity}{one instance on the University of Iowa's campus} \citep{DesMoinesTribune1975_05_06}, although I have not located contemporaneous mentions. \hypertarget{Canada}{% -\section*{Crossing to Canada}\label{Canada}} +\subsection*{Crossing to Canada}\label{Canada}} Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use \citep{Patterson1976}. @@ -1022,16 +1025,22 @@ \section*{Crossing to Canada}\label{Canada}} \caption{Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger \citep{MacKenzie1976}.}\label{fig:imgMacKenzie1976} \end{figure} -\hypertarget{university-cities}{% -\chapter*{University Cities}\label{university-cities}} +\hypertarget{scholastic-endeavors}{% +\chapter*{Scholastic Endeavors}\label{scholastic-endeavors}} Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in \protect\hyperlink{BerkeleyCA1968_08_31}{Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests}, many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons. The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when \protect\hyperlink{CollegeParkMD1970_05_04}{Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel} \citep{Cabe1970}. +Use of fogger-based chemical weapons against students, particularly students of color, was not limited to college campuses, but extended to high and middle schools. + +\hypertarget{university-cities}{% +\section*{University Cities}\label{university-cities}} + + \hypertarget{durham}{% -\section*{Durham}\label{durham}} +\subsection*{Durham}\label{durham}} Durham North Carolina Police broke up the ``Allen Building Demonstration'' taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger \citep{DMH1969, Schreiberetal1971a, Schreiberetal1971b}. @@ -1060,7 +1069,7 @@ \section*{Durham}\label{durham}} \end{figure} \hypertarget{berkeley}{% -\section*{Berkeley}\label{berkeley}} +\subsection*{Berkeley}\label{berkeley}} \hypertarget{BerkeleyCA1969_02_21}{% @@ -1137,7 +1146,7 @@ \subsubsection*{May 15 1969}\label{may-15-1969}} \begin{figure} -{\centering \includegraphics[width=9.69in]{img/gasjeep} +{\centering \includegraphics{img/gasjeep} } @@ -1145,14 +1154,14 @@ \subsubsection*{May 15 1969}\label{may-15-1969}} \end{figure} \hypertarget{seattle}{% -\section*{Seattle}\label{seattle}} +\subsection*{Seattle}\label{seattle}} Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with ``hundreds of unruly youths in the University District'' on August 14 1969 \citep{StatesmanJournal1969_08_17}. Witnesses recounted that the machine was ``highly effective'', filling ``2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute'' \citep{StatesmanJournal1969_08_17}. \hypertarget{CollegeParkMD1970_05_04}{% -\section*{College Park}\label{CollegeParkMD1970_05_04}} +\subsection*{College Park}\label{CollegeParkMD1970_05_04}} On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixon's expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park \citep{WAS2013}. @@ -1195,7 +1204,7 @@ \section*{College Park}\label{CollegeParkMD1970_05_04}} \end{figure} \hypertarget{IowaCity}{% -\section*{Iowa City}\label{IowaCity}} +\subsection*{Iowa City}\label{IowaCity}} Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 \citep{Eckholt1971}. @@ -1203,7 +1212,7 @@ \section*{Iowa City}\label{IowaCity}} The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as ``unidentified'' because the Sheriff refused to publicly name the compounds, including to the news media \citep{Eckholt1971}. \hypertarget{Minneapolis1972_05_10}{% -\section*{Minneapolis}\label{Minneapolis1972_05_10}} +\subsection*{Minneapolis}\label{Minneapolis1972_05_10}} Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors \citep{ArgusLeader1972_05_11a}. @@ -1212,24 +1221,24 @@ \section*{Minneapolis}\label{Minneapolis1972_05_10}} The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (\textasciitilde0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) \citep{StarTribune1972_05_11}. \hypertarget{gainesville}{% -\section*{Gainesville}\label{gainesville}} +\subsection*{Gainesville}\label{gainesville}} Similarly to the anti-mine protests in \protect\hyperlink{Minneapolis1972_05_10}{Minneapolis}, on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed ``The Monster'' which ``spewed tear gas'' \citep{ArgusLeader1972_05_11b}. Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first \href{Liberty\%20City\%20\#MiamiFL1968_08_08}{deployed thermal foggers via a truck} in 1968 \citep{Tschenschlok1995, Lorentzen2018}. \hypertarget{high-schools}{% -\chapter*{High Schools}\label{high-schools}} +\section*{High Schools}\label{high-schools}} -Almost immediately, law enforcement extended use of foggers from \protect\hypertarget{Universities}{}{universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. +As soon as they laid their hands on foggers, law enforcement extended their use from \protect\hypertarget{Universities}{}{universities} to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. -I will stop to repeat that again so that we can all (myself included) reflect on this. +I will stop to repeat that again so that we (myself included) can all reflect on this. Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to \protect\hyperlink{Vietnam}{gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels}. \hypertarget{SanGordonio}{% -\section*{San Gordonio}\label{SanGordonio}} +\subsection*{San Gordonio}\label{SanGordonio}} Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) \citep{TheDeltaDemocratTimes1969_11_20} on November 20, 1969 references a ``recent'' use of the fogger on students. @@ -1249,7 +1258,7 @@ \section*{San Gordonio}\label{SanGordonio}} On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a ``major racial confrontation'' among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus \citep{Yetzeretal1971}. \hypertarget{Lawrence1970_04_21}{% -\section*{Lawrence}\label{Lawrence1970_04_21}} +\subsection*{Lawrence}\label{Lawrence1970_04_21}} Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members \citep{Monhollon2002}. @@ -1272,122 +1281,37 @@ \section*{Lawrence}\label{Lawrence1970_04_21}} \caption{Police bring a \protect\hyperlink{GOEC}{GOEC} pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School \citep{UKA1970}.}\label{fig:imglawrence19700421} \end{figure} +\hypertarget{broadening-application}{% +\chapter*{Broadening Application}\label{broadening-application}} + + +The use of foggers, while not commonly overt, spread throughout the 1970s and 1980s, occasionally making an appearance in news media reports. + \hypertarget{racial-justice}{% -\chapter*{Racial Justice}\label{racial-justice}} +\section*{Racial Justice}\label{racial-justice}} Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general \citep{DSPDX2020}. It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the \protect\hyperlink{MiamiFL1968_08_08}{Liberty City Riots}, a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. -Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of used explicitly during that time \citep{Askren1992}. -For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; \citet{USCB1970}) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson \citep{Askren1992}. - -The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the \protect\hyperlink{PortlandOR2020_07_29}{2020 Black Lives Matter protests} \citep{pb20202021}. -Since then, the fogger has been deployed \protect\hyperlink{PortlandORICE2020_2021}{three additional times by CBP in Portland}, all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. - \hypertarget{danville-il}{% -\section*{Danville IL}\label{danville-il}} +\subsection*{Danville IL}\label{danville-il}} Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; \citep{USCB1970}) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations \citep{Palladium-Item1969}, August 10th 1969. -\hypertarget{PortlandOR2020_2021}{% -\section*{Portland OR}\label{PortlandOR2020_2021}} - - -\hypertarget{PortlandOR2020_07_29}{% -\subsection*{July 29 2020}\label{PortlandOR2020_07_29}} - - -At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to ``protect'' federal property in Portland, OR \citep{DHS2020, Flanigan2020, Trump2020}. -During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger \citep{Recompiler2020_07_29}, which has been identified through photos as an \href{https://www.nixalite.com/product/igeba-tf-35}{IGEBA TF35} thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. -This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while ``\emph{training tool for military/law enforcement}'' is listed among its uses \citep{Nixalite2009a}, its safety requirements explicitly state: - -\begin{quote} -``\emph{\textbf{19. Do not fog directly against persons\ldots During operation keep distance of minimum {[}10 ft{]}.}}'' - \citep{Nixalite2009b} -\end{quote} - - - -\begin{figure} - -{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2020_07_29} - -} - -\caption{CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse \citep{Brown2020}.}\label{fig:imgportland202007292} -\end{figure} - -\hypertarget{PortlandORICE2020_2021}{% -\subsection*{Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property}\label{PortlandORICE2020_2021}} +\hypertarget{rodney-king}{% +\subsection*{Rodney King}\label{rodney-king}} -While the thermal fogger hasn't been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood \citep{Simonis2021} -- the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 \citep{Dubois2018}. - -The first of such deployments occurred during the fall of 2020. - -Along with cities across the country, Portland hosted many events on October 17th focused around the racial and gender justice \citep{Recompiler2020_10_17}. -In the evening, there was a gathering at Willamette Park in the Southwest part of the city, where organizers passed out balloons detailing harrowing experiences of migrants and immigrants detained by ICE \citep{Recompiler2020_10_17}. -After marching to the ICE rental property, individuals tied the balloons to the gate to the parking garage, and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents including Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers deployed massive amounts of chemical weapons, including via a thermal fogger, throughout the neighborhood \citep{Recompiler2020_10_17}. - - - -\begin{figure} - -{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2020_10_17} - -} - -\caption{CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood \citep{Lake2020}.}\label{fig:imgportland20201017} -\end{figure} - -\hypertarget{J20}{% -\subsection*{Inaugration 2021}\label{J20}} - - -The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day (``J20'') Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building \citep{Recompiler2021_01_20}. -The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school \citep{Recompiler2021_01_20, Simonis2021}. - - - -\begin{figure} - -{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2021_01_20} - -} - -\caption{CBP officer holding thermal fogger \citep{Staab2021}.}\label{fig:imgportland20210120} -\end{figure} - -That weekend, CBP deployed the fogger again during Abolish ICE protests, this time gassing even more of the neighborhood, including the local public school and veterans-preference housing \citep{Recompiler2021_01_23, Simonis2021}. - - - -\begin{figure} - -{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2021_01_23_1} - -} - -\caption{CBP agent holding thermal fogger \citep{Lewis-Rolland2021a}.}\label{fig:imgportland202101231} -\end{figure} - - - -\begin{figure} - -{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2021_01_23_2} - -} - -\caption{CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood \citep{Lewis-Rolland2021b}.}\label{fig:imgportland202101232} -\end{figure} +Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of foggers being used explicitly during that time \citep{Askren1992}. +For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; \citet{USCB1970}) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson \citep{Askren1992}. \hypertarget{labor}{% -\chapter*{Labor}\label{labor}} +\section*{Labor}\label{labor}} Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. @@ -1416,10 +1340,16 @@ \subsection*{North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982}\label{north-kingstown-ri-march-2 Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe \citep{Carbone2017}. \hypertarget{celebrations}{% -\chapter*{Celebrations}\label{celebrations}} +\section*{Celebrations}\label{celebrations}} -On occassion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. +On occasion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. + +\hypertarget{nhra-nationals}{% +\subsection*{1974 NHRA Nationals}\label{nhra-nationals}} + + +Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 \citep{Courier1974_09_02, TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10}. \hypertarget{new-years-eve}{% \subsection*{1975 New Years Eve}\label{new-years-eve}} @@ -1441,11 +1371,20 @@ \subsection*{1975 New Years Eve}\label{new-years-eve}} The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette \citep{BerkeleyGazette1976_01_02} as well as the Tampa Tribune \citep{TheTampaTribune1976_01_02}. -\hypertarget{nhra-nationals}{% -\subsection*{1974 NHRA Nationals}\label{nhra-nationals}} +\hypertarget{trainging-accidents}{% +\section*{Trainging Accidents}\label{trainging-accidents}} -Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Association's US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 \citep{Courier1974_09_02, TheBillingsGazette1982_01_10}. +While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation \citep{Judd1981}. + +\hypertarget{bullitt-volunteer-fire-department}{% +\subsection*{Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department}\label{bullitt-volunteer-fire-department}} + + +On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their ``victim'' and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains \citep{Judd1981}. + +Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training \citep{Judd1981}. +Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds \citep{TheCourierJournal1982_01_10}, indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use ``safe'' smoke. \hypertarget{CarceralSystem}{% \chapter*{The Carceral System}\label{CarceralSystem}} @@ -1488,20 +1427,6 @@ \section*{Dade County}\label{dade-county}} Dade County Sheriffs used foggers to sweep a field on July 17th 1974 in search of a murder suspect that had eluded K-9 units, helicopters, a plane, and an attempt to flush him out by burning the field \citep{TampaBayTimes1974_07_18}. The suspect was so well dug in that he could withstand significant gassing that surprised a Sheriff's sergeant who participated in the operation \citep{TampaBayTimes1974_07_18}. -\hypertarget{accidents}{% -\chapter*{Accidents}\label{accidents}} - - -\hypertarget{bullitt-volunteer-fire-deptartment}{% -\subsection*{Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment}\label{bullitt-volunteer-fire-deptartment}} - - -While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation \citep{Judd1981}. -On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal's office when their ``victim'' and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains \citep{Judd1981}. - -Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal's office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training \citep{Judd1981}. -Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds \citep{TheCourierJournal1982_01_10}, indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use ``safe'' smoke. - \hypertarget{CBP}{% \chapter*{Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging}\label{CBP}} @@ -1510,7 +1435,7 @@ \chapter*{Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging}\label{CBP}} Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. \hypertarget{international-trafficking}{% -\subsection*{International Trafficking}\label{international-trafficking}} +\section*{International Trafficking}\label{international-trafficking}} Within a year and a half of the fogger's arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. @@ -1522,19 +1447,142 @@ \subsection*{International Trafficking}\label{international-trafficking}} Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the `Drug War' \citep{Chepesiuk1999}, it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. \hypertarget{bortac}{% -\subsection*{BORTAC}\label{bortac}} +\section*{BORTAC}\label{bortac}} By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings \citep{CBP2006, CBP2014, CBP2018}. BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; \citet{CBP2006}), providing a wide range of services \citep{CBP2014, Miller2019}. BORTAC's specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers \citep{CBP2006, CBP2014}, noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States \href{@CarceralSystem}{carceral system}. -BORTAC would be the unit to bring the thermal fogger back to use against domestic civilian protesters during the \protect\hyperlink{PortlandOR2020_07_29}{Black Lives Matter} and \protect\hyperlink{PortlandORICE2020_2021}{Ablolish ICE} protests in Portland Oregon during 2020 and 2021. -Indeed, Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico \citep{Borunda2020}. +Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico \citep{Borunda2020}. + +\hypertarget{PortlandOR2020_2021}{% +\subsection*{Portland OR}\label{PortlandOR2020_2021}} + + +The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the \protect\hyperlink{PortlandOR2020_07_29}{2020 Black Lives Matter protests} \citep{pb20202021}. +Since then, the fogger has been deployed \protect\hyperlink{PortlandORICE2020_2021}{three additional times by CBP in Portland}, all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. + +\hypertarget{PortlandOR2020_07_29}{% +\subsubsection*{July 29 2020}\label{PortlandOR2020_07_29}} + + +At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to ``protect'' federal property in Portland, OR \citep{DHS2020, Flanigan2020, Trump2020}. +During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger \citep{Recompiler2020_07_29}, which has been identified through photos as an \href{https://www.nixalite.com/product/igeba-tf-35}{IGEBA TF35} thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. +This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while ``\emph{training tool for military/law enforcement}'' is listed among its uses \citep{Nixalite2009a}, its safety requirements explicitly state: + +\begin{quote} +``\emph{\textbf{19. Do not fog directly against persons\ldots During operation keep distance of minimum {[}10 ft{]}.}}'' - \citep{Nixalite2009b} +\end{quote} + + + +\begin{figure} + +{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2020_07_29} + +} + +\caption{CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse \citep{Brown2020}.}\label{fig:imgportland202007292} +\end{figure} + +\hypertarget{PortlandORICE2020_2021}{% +\subsubsection*{Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property}\label{PortlandORICE2020_2021}} + + +While the thermal fogger hasn't been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood \citep{Simonis2021} -- the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 \citep{Dubois2018}. + +The first of such deployments occurred during the fall of 2020. + +Along with cities across the country, Portland hosted many events on October 17th focused around the racial and gender justice \citep{Recompiler2020_10_17}. +In the evening, there was a gathering at Willamette Park in the Southwest part of the city, where organizers passed out balloons detailing harrowing experiences of migrants and immigrants detained by ICE \citep{Recompiler2020_10_17}. +After marching to the ICE rental property, individuals tied the balloons to the gate to the parking garage, and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents including Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers deployed massive amounts of chemical weapons, including via a thermal fogger, throughout the neighborhood \citep{Recompiler2020_10_17}. + + + +\begin{figure} + +{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2020_10_17} + +} + +\caption{CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood \citep{Lake2020}.}\label{fig:imgportland20201017} +\end{figure} + +\hypertarget{J20}{% +\subsubsection*{Inaugration 2021}\label{J20}} + + +The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day (``J20'') Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building \citep{Recompiler2021_01_20}. +The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school \citep{Recompiler2021_01_20, Simonis2021}. + + + +\begin{figure} + +{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2021_01_20} + +} + +\caption{CBP officer holding thermal fogger \citep{Staab2021}.}\label{fig:imgportland20210120} +\end{figure} + +That weekend, CBP deployed the fogger again during Abolish ICE protests, this time gassing even more of the neighborhood, including the local public school and veterans-preference housing \citep{Recompiler2021_01_23, Simonis2021}. + + + +\begin{figure} + +{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2021_01_23_1} + +} + +\caption{CBP agent holding thermal fogger \citep{Lewis-Rolland2021a}.}\label{fig:imgportland202101231} +\end{figure} + + + +\begin{figure} + +{\centering \includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{img/portland_2021_01_23_2} + +} + +\caption{CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood \citep{Lewis-Rolland2021b}.}\label{fig:imgportland202101232} +\end{figure} + +\hypertarget{Conclusion}{% +\chapter*{Conclusion}\label{Conclusion}} + + +Although the use of a thermal fogger by US CBP to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protesters in Portland in 2020 and 2021 appeared novel to many, the truth is that it is just the most recent chapter in acylical narrative stretching back half a century and spanning the globe. + +Spawned from the US military occupation of Vietnam, the thermal fogger has always been a tool for suppressing resistance among the populace. +Its initial transition to the American homefront was rapid and smooth, with retired military law enforcement eager to deploy them against civil rights and anti-war protesters. + +As the fogger grew less popular with police and faded from public view in the past few decades, its use was maintained in the carceral system +Simultaneously, foggers were peddled by US CBP Agents overseas -- a second deployment. +Agents from the same units within CBP then brought the fogger back home again, for a second return. + +Throughout all of this, the fogger was used to maim and even kill individuals while targeting the marginalized, many of whom have stories that have not been heard publicly. +I hope that through this work, I can call attention to the shared history across generations, spark conversations, and facilitate story telling to illuminate the impacts of the thermal fogger on human people beings. + +Building on the concept of an Imperial Boomerang, I propose that the trajectory of the thermal fogger can be thought of as an Imperial Tetherball, with multiple depatures and returns. +Key questions from my perspective are then: + +\begin{itemize} +\tightlist +\item + what perpetuates the momentum of the fogger, facilitating it to swing around more than once? +\item + what routes exist for subsequent rotations where the fogger could be deployed overseas and then brought home again? +\end{itemize} + +Clearly, this topic deserves more theoretical evaluation, as well. -\hypertarget{References}{% -\chapter*{References}\label{References}} +While the thermal fogger is still presently \emph{in play} in Portland, countless other departments around the world have these machines of war sitting in their arsenals, primed and ready. +And we still don't even know what comes out of the exhaust nozzle. \bibliography{packages.bib,references.bib} diff --git a/_book/foreword.html b/_book/foreword.html 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    Content Warning

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    This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. -Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. -Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers.

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    Land Acknowledgment

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    This work’s impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America – the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima.

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    Chemical weapons are a common tool among imperialist regimes. -The events cataloged in this book occur at many locations across the present-day United States and internationally, with specific references to Canada, Mexico, and Vietnam, where colonizing forces of (predominately Northwestern) Europe have used forced labor from enslaved Black people to impose significant force on Indigenous cultures and individuals.

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    No words can fully encompass the place in which each of the stories told in this book occur. -I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and please remember that each use of a thermal fogger or other brutal police force described here impacted many, many lives.

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    I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear.

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    Inherent Bias

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    This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. -As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. -Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if “legally required”), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered.

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    Author Position

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    I, Dr. Juniper L. Simonis (they/them/theirs), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. -I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcement’s chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment.

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    I have a PhD in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Cornell, where I studied aquatic ecology and biogeochemistry – disciplines I have put to use to studying the impact of chemical weapons. -Through my ecological research, I have uncovered historical and current information into the impacts of chemical weapons that I was not seeing being represented in the present day broad cultural discourse.

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    From this need to share historical information came this book, a way for me to pass along a window into the racist, classist, capitalistic, and colonialistic throughline of the thermal fogger.

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    I am an abolitionist in multiple senses: I believe that the use of chemical weapons, police, and the carceral system should all be abolished, full-stop.

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    Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a deep connection to my protest elders who experienced thermal foggers decades ago. -I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. -We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people.

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    Financial Statement

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    All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. -No external funding was provided.

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    Licenses

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    This book it created under a dual license that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. -All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the References and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors.

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    Acknowledgments

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    My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. -I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobby’s murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. -I hope that by shining a light on his story now, more people will come to understand just how horrendous the prison system is and fight for its abolition.

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    The story of Robert Forsythe is almost certainly not unique, and only public knowledge because of the trial against the corrections officers. -I recognize that many others have been killed by thermal foggers, yet we will never know their names.

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    This booklet is based on a variety of sources past and present, and to the journalists and photographers: thank you for sharing your work with the world.

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    I have no idea how many people have been involved in digitizing historical newspapers, as their names are never on anything, but y’all are fantastic and I appreciate you so much.

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    Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images.

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    Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the Lawrence High School protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful.

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    The cover image is based on Lewis-Rolland (2021a).

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    Contribute Information

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    If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out via the Chem Weapons Research Website or submit an issue or pull request on our GitHub repository for the book.

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    In the wake of the 1968 Democratic National Convention, Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. -The pepper fogger was touted as being able to “empty a house fast” by Cook County Illinois Sheriff Joseph Woods (Harris 1969b, 1969c), a definitely off-spec and dangerous use (Nixalite 2009b). -The volume of fog emitted was also said to be able to fill Soldier Field (capacity 61,500 fans) in under a minute (Harris 1969c). -Regardless, the Chicago-area Sheriff decided they needed three of them (Harris 1969c). -The Sheriff’s Major in charge of chemical arsenal Anthony Yucevicius noted the fogger’s psychological effect on recipients, as well saying

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    They make a terrifying noise and probably will have a scare effect on crowds.

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    — Harris (1969a).

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    Use expanded among and within states, as by 1972 the Illinois State Police also purchased three foggers, which they trained with in Springfield (Robinson 1972). -In news reports, the foggers were described as

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    a cross between a machine gun, a power lawn mower, and a sun lamp.

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    — Robinson (1972).

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    Florida

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    Similarly, following the 1968 Republican National Convention, Florida law enforcement took to the fogger (Cain 1968). -In Sanford (1970 pop. 17,393; USCB (1971)), the local police department purchased a fogger for use with CN gas, noting that it could shoot fog 20 ft for up to a 15 minute stretch, and so would be effective for controlling large masses (Cain 1968). -They had, however, only used it in training and for demoing to the media (Cain 1968).

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    -Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). -

    -Figure 27: Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). -

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    California

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    Eager to not be shown up by the police in Berkeley, by 1970, the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department had already purchased their own fogger for their “big artillery” to use “when other forms of persuasion have failed” and started a media campaign (Michals 1970). -The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chemical weapons use, which was set up through Officer Robert Hawkins (Michals 1970).

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    -Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). -

    -Figure 28: Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). -

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    Almost immediately, law enforcement extended use of foggers from universities to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters.

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    I will stop to repeat that again so that we can all (myself included) reflect on this.

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    High Schools

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    As soon as they laid their hands on foggers, law enforcement extended their use from universities to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters.

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    I will stop to repeat that again so that we (myself included) can all reflect on this.

    Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels.

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    San Gordonio

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    Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) (United Press International 1969a) on November 20, 1969 references a “recent” use of the fogger on students.

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    +B/W faded image: To the left is a person wearing a uniform with a patch on the shoulder and a helmet. In their right hand is the nozzle to a fogger and it appears to be emitting fog. There is a white fog cloud covering most of the rest of the image. +

    +Figure 41: Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School (United Press International 1969b). +

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    Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. +On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a “major racial confrontation” among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus (Yetzer et al. 1971).

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    Lawrence

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    Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members (Monhollon 2002). +The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards (Monhollon 2002).

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    Black students had occuppied the principal’s office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school (Monhollon 2002). +Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers (Monhollon 2002). +The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout (Monhollon 2002).

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    The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the GOEC Pepper Fog fogger:

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    +yellowed B/W faded image of police officers standing on a T of a sidewalk blocking the space from a group of predominately Black young people, who are standing behind them on the grass and facing the camera. Behind them are some cars and houses across a stree. The officer in the front left of the frame is carrying a Pepper Fog GOEC fogger. +

    +Figure 42: Police bring a GOEC pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School (University of Kansas Archives 1970). +

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    High Schools

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/08-high_schools.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -223,7 +255,7 @@

    High Schools

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    The Thermal Fogger

    An Imperial Tetherball

    Dr. Juniper L. Simonis

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    Inherent Bias

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    This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. +As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. +Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if “legally required”), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered.

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    International Melting Pot

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    International Melting Pot

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    Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors (Associated Press 1972b). -In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger (Associated Press 1972a; Star Tribune 1972).

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    The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) (Star Tribune 1972).

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    International Trafficking

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    Within a year and a half of the fogger’s arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. +During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government (Star Tribune 1973). +Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations (Star Tribune 1973). +Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State (United Press International 1972). +Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position (Star Tribune 1973).

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    Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the ‘Drug War’ (Chepesiuk 1999), it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event.

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    Minneapolis

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    Minneapolis

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    Introduction


    With this seemingly novel usage, DHS made a large swath of the populace aware of an insidious weapon that is actually not new, but – in fact – was birthed in the American occupation of Vietnam, perfected for use against domestic protesters in the 1960s and ’70s, and sent abroad via CBP in the years since. -The subsequent return of the thermal fogger to use against civilians domestically by the same domestic law enforcement agency (CBP) that sent it abroad after its initial domestic use is an extension of the classical Imperialist Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976; Graham 2013) that can be more aptly described as a tetherball.

    +The subsequent return of the thermal fogger to use against civilians domestically by the same domestic law enforcement agency (CBP) that sent it abroad after its initial domestic use is an extension of the classical Imperialist Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976; Graham 2013) that can be more aptly described as a tetherball.

    Despite repeated use of thermal foggers to deploy chemical weapons over the last half century, the device appears to have slipped from the zeitgeist, only to reemerge in the city that experienced the most visible federal deployment of chemical weapons (Flanigan 2020) and weapons-based incidents of police brutality at racial justice protests (regardless of population size) (PB2020 Team 2021), perhaps due to the noteworthy density of photographers and videographers.

    Although not all of the weapon’s history is documented, enough is that we can quickly dispel the myth that this deployment was new in any notable sense other than being recent.

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    Introduction

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    Introduction

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/labor.html b/_book/labor.html index 4fa4c2f..a68df29 100644 --- a/_book/labor.html +++ b/_book/labor.html @@ -24,14 +24,14 @@ - + - - + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
    • -
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    • +
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    • -
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  • A Colonial Tool
    • -
  • The Return +
  • Domestic Applications
    • -
  • Coming Soon To A Town Near You! -
    • -
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    • -
  • High Schools +
  • Scholastic Endeavors
    • -
  • Racial Justice +
  • Broadening Application
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
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  • Accidents
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  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
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  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,26 +176,24 @@

    -
    -

    Labor

    +
    +

    Labor

    Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history.

    North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982

    The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island (Associated Press 1982b; Carbone 2017). A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers’ wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory (Associated Press 1982b; Carbone 2017). The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them (Carbone 2017).

    -


    B/W newspaper clipping: To the left there are several people crouched on the ground with their heads down and covered. Behind them is a small crowd of people turning and moving away. To the right are three officials in helmets and masks facing the people on the ground and holding a fogger in front that is spraying a cloud of fog right over those on the ground.

    -Figure 48: Police fog striking workers and their families (Associated Press 1982a). +Figure 43: Police fog striking workers and their families (Associated Press 1982a).


    The fogging did not, however, break the strike (Carbone 2017).

    Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe (Carbone 2017).

    -
    @@ -205,7 +201,7 @@

    North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982

    - + @@ -228,7 +224,7 @@

    North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/10-labor.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-broaden.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -239,7 +235,7 @@

    North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/gainesville.html b/_book/land-acknowledgment.html similarity index 63% rename from _book/gainesville.html rename to _book/land-acknowledgment.html index b657f13..0987b30 100644 --- a/_book/gainesville.html +++ b/_book/land-acknowledgment.html @@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ - Gainesville | The Thermal Fogger + Land Acknowledgment | The Thermal Fogger - + @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ - + @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - - - + + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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  • High Schools +
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  • Racial Justice +
  • Broadening Application
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  • Labor
  • Celebrations
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  • The Carceral System
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    • @@ -178,20 +176,22 @@

    -
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    Gainesville

    -

    Similarly to the anti-mine protests in Minneapolis, on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed “The Monster” which “spewed tear gas” (Associated Press 1972a). -Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first deployed thermal foggers via a truck in 1968 (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018).

    - +
    +

    Land Acknowledgment

    +

    This work’s impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America – the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima.

    +

    Chemical weapons are a common tool among imperialist regimes. +The events cataloged in this book occur at many locations across the present-day United States and internationally, with specific references to Canada, Mexico, and Vietnam, where colonizing forces of (predominately Northwestern) Europe have used forced labor from enslaved Black people to impose significant force on Indigenous cultures and individuals.

    +

    No words can fully encompass the place in which each of the stories told in this book occur. +I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and please remember that each use of a thermal fogger or other brutal police force described here impacted many, many lives.

    +

    I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear.

    -
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    Gainesville

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/07-universities.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/00-preface.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -224,7 +224,7 @@

    Gainesville

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/IowaCity.html b/_book/licenses.html similarity index 67% rename from _book/IowaCity.html rename to _book/licenses.html index 7a05de7..a3c3b1b 100644 --- a/_book/IowaCity.html +++ b/_book/licenses.html @@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ - Iowa City | The Thermal Fogger + Licenses | The Thermal Fogger - + @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ - + @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - - - + + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,18 +176,18 @@

    -
    -

    Iowa City

    -

    Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 (Eckholt 1971).

    -

    The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as “unidentified” because the Sheriff refused to publicly name the compounds, including to the news media (Eckholt 1971).

    +
    +

    Licenses

    +

    This book it created under a dual license that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. +All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the References and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors.

    - - + + @@ -211,7 +209,7 @@

    Iowa City

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/07-universities.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/00-preface.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -222,7 +220,7 @@

    Iowa City

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/manufacturers.html b/_book/manufacturers.html index e3d816f..8ee95b8 100644 --- a/_book/manufacturers.html +++ b/_book/manufacturers.html @@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ - + - + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -251,7 +249,7 @@

    General Ordnance Equipment Corporation


    -

    They also leveraged the connection between local law enforcement and the press to generate free marketing with an international reach.

    +

    They also leveraged the connection between local law enforcement and the press to generate free marketing with an international reach.

    It is perhaps no surprise then that virtually all of the foggers photographed being used in the US prior to 2020 are GOEC models.

    @@ -297,7 +295,7 @@

    Defense Technology

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/04-the_return.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/03-return.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -308,7 +306,7 @@

    Defense Technology

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/news-media-propaganda.html b/_book/news-media-propaganda.html deleted file mode 100644 index 33bad72..0000000 --- a/_book/news-media-propaganda.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,273 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - - News Media Propaganda | The Thermal Fogger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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    Alongside the more overtly pro-police-use-of-chemical-weapons propaganda of Rex Applegate were other, perhaps more subtle forms of pro-fogger propaganda (Macomber 1970). -Newspapers around the country were more than happy to print “articles” that promoted the new arsenals police departments were building (LaPrade 1970), complete with product demo photos.

    -


    - -
    -Black and white newspaper clipping of an officer standing in front of a open garage door, next to a police car that is partially in frame on the left and front areas. A GOEC-style thermal fogger sits on the hood of the car in front of the officer, pointing towards and to the left of the camera. The officer is wearing beat clothing and a cop hat and also has a shotgun. -

    -Figure 19: Amarillo Texas Police Sergent Jerry Austin with a thermal fogger and shotgun (Vance 1970). Amarillo’s 1970 population was 127,010 (USCB 1971). -

    -
    -


    -


    - -
    -Black and white newspaper clipping of an officer standing in a field just front a forest/brush line, fogging out into the open area as part of a demonstration. The officer is wearing a riot helmet and coveralls and has the fogger slug over their right arm with a strap they are also holding with their left hand. The officer stands in the left part of the frame, fogging to the right, using a GOEC-style fogger with the nozzle tip right in the middle of the photo. -

    -Figure 20: Richland County (Ohio) Sheriff’s Captain Robert Dysart demonstrating a thermal fogger to a crowd of >200 people (Aman 1970). Richland County’s 1970 population was 129,997 (USCB 1971). -

    -
    -


    -

    General Ordnance Equipment Corporation’s Pepper Fog model seems to have been the favorite, at least amongst the departments showing off their new cool toys for photographs.

    -


    - -
    -Black and white photo of an individual standing in a grass field with wood horse fence and trees and barns in the background. The individual is in light clothes and a black cap and is using both hands to hold a pepper fogger, which they are using to fog some grass on the right side of the photo. they are facing the camera, so the classic GOEC label is visible. -

    -Figure 21: A McHenry County (Illinois) Sheriff’s officer fogs some grass in a rural landscape during a training and press demo day (Wayne Gaylord 1971; The McHenry Plaindealer 1971). McHenry County’s 1970 population was 111,555 (USCB 1971). -

    -
    -


    -


    - -
    -Black and white newspaper clipping of two officers standing in front of a large brick wall. Scott County deputy sheriff Jim Lewis, left, holds a new grenade launcher and a riot gun. he is donning a standard beat uniform with a bucket hat. Sheriff William Strout is on the right in street clothes and is holding a GOEC pepper fogger in his right hand and gas mask in his left. The officers are making an X with the barrells of the grenade launcher and fogger. -

    -Figure 22: Scott County (Iowa) deputy sheriff Jim Lewis, left, holds a new grenade launcher and a riot gun while Sheriff William Strout displays a pepper fogger and gas mask (Winter 1970). Scott County’s 1970 population was 142,687 (USCB 1971). -

    -
    -


    -
    -

    Gary Wills

    -

    Pulitzer Prize-winning Garry Wills (who at the time was considerably more conservative than he came to be later) penned an op-ed that ran in (at least) The Herald Statesman (Yonkers, New York) (Wills 1971a), The Daily Item (Port Chester, New York) (Wills 1971b), The Charlotte News (Charlotte, North Carolina) (Wills 1971c), and The Philadelphia Inquirer (Wills 1971d) in April 1971 in which he basically tells all the cry babies (pun intended) to suck it up because he “would not be afraid to undergo such experiences [as being pepper fogged] again” (Wills 1971a).

    -

    Notably, he touts the leading belief at the time that somehow thermal fogging is a “safe immobilizer of individuals” (Wills 1971a), despite the weapon not being demonstrably safer than gas grenades and not only not “immobilizing” but explicitly designed to mobilize immobile resisters. -Interesting, Wills compares indiscriminate and uncontrollable chemical weapons as “safer than dogs, which get out of control, bit bystanders (and even other cops) as well as ‘the bad guys’” (Wills 1971a).

    -

    He concludes his piece by calling tear gas “humane in … foreign wars [and] domestic encounters” (Wills 1971a), speaking clearly to the return, classically defining an Imperial Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976).

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  • Celebrations
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    -
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    Seattle

    -

    Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with “hundreds of unruly youths in the University District” on August 14 1969 (Associated Press 1969p). -Witnesses recounted that the machine was “highly effective,” filling “2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute” (Associated Press 1969p).

    +

    - - + + @@ -211,7 +208,7 @@

    Seattle

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/07-universities.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/00-preface.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -222,7 +219,7 @@

    Seattle

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/racial-justice.html b/_book/racial-justice.html index b4b343c..cf1dca8 100644 --- a/_book/racial-justice.html +++ b/_book/racial-justice.html @@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ - + - - - + + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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    • @@ -178,23 +176,29 @@

    -
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    Racial Justice

    +
    +

    Racial Justice

    Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general (Morman et al. 2020). It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the Liberty City Riots, a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves.

    -

    Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of used explicitly during that time (Askren 1992). +

    +

    Danville IL

    +

    Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas.

    +

    Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; (USCB 1971)) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations (Associated Press 1969o), August 10th 1969.

    +
    +
    +

    Rodney King

    +

    Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of foggers being used explicitly during that time (Askren 1992). For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson (Askren 1992).

    -

    The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests (PB2020 Team 2021). -Since then, the fogger has been deployed three additional times by CBP in Portland, all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront.

    +
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    Racial Justice

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/09-racial_justice.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-broaden.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -227,7 +231,7 @@

    Racial Justice

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    Rex Applegate

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/04-the_return.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/03-return.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -234,7 +232,7 @@

    Rex Applegate

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/Canada.html b/_book/scholastic-endeavors.html similarity index 65% rename from _book/Canada.html rename to _book/scholastic-endeavors.html index 7f0d3ef..50b6964 100644 --- a/_book/Canada.html +++ b/_book/scholastic-endeavors.html @@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ - Crossing to Canada | The Thermal Fogger + Scholastic Endeavors | The Thermal Fogger - + @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ - + @@ -24,14 +24,14 @@ - + - - + + @@ -96,19 +96,29 @@
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    Crossing to Canada

    -

    Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use (Patterson 1976). -A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers (Patterson 1976).

    -


    - -
    -Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). -

    -Figure 30: Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). -

    -
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    Scholastic Endeavors

    +

    Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests, many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons.

    +

    The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970).

    +

    Use of fogger-based chemical weapons against students, particularly students of color, was not limited to college campuses, but extended to high and middle schools.

    -
    - + @@ -222,7 +210,7 @@

    Crossing to Canada

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/06-the_spread.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -233,7 +221,7 @@

    Crossing to Canada

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_book/search_index.json b/_book/search_index.json index c4bf955..04f9987 100644 --- a/_book/search_index.json +++ b/_book/search_index.json @@ -1 +1 @@ -[["index.html", "The Thermal Fogger An Imperial Tetherball ", " The Thermal Fogger An Imperial Tetherball Dr. Juniper L. Simonis 2021-06-27 An archived version of this book is available on Zenodo. "],["foreword.html", "Foreword", " Foreword Content Warning This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers. Land Acknowledgment This works impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima. Chemical weapons are a common tool among imperialist regimes. The events cataloged in this book occur at many locations across the present-day United States and internationally, with specific references to Canada, Mexico, and Vietnam, where colonizing forces of (predominately Northwestern) Europe have used forced labor from enslaved Black people to impose significant force on Indigenous cultures and individuals. No words can fully encompass the place in which each of the stories told in this book occur. I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and please remember that each use of a thermal fogger or other brutal police force described here impacted many, many lives. I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear. Inherent Bias This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if legally required), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered. Author Position I, Dr. Juniper L. Simonis (they/them/theirs), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcements chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment. I have a PhD in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Cornell, where I studied aquatic ecology and biogeochemistry disciplines I have put to use to studying the impact of chemical weapons. Through my ecological research, I have uncovered historical and current information into the impacts of chemical weapons that I was not seeing being represented in the present day broad cultural discourse. From this need to share historical information came this book, a way for me to pass along a window into the racist, classist, capitalistic, and colonialistic throughline of the thermal fogger. I am an abolitionist in multiple senses: I believe that the use of chemical weapons, police, and the carceral system should all be abolished, full-stop. Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a deep connection to my protest elders who experienced thermal foggers decades ago. I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people. Financial Statement All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. No external funding was provided. Licenses This book it created under a dual license that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the References and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors. Acknowledgments My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobbys murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. I hope that by shining a light on his story now, more people will come to understand just how horrendous the prison system is and fight for its abolition. The story of Robert Forsythe is almost certainly not unique, and only public knowledge because of the trial against the corrections officers. I recognize that many others have been killed by thermal foggers, yet we will never know their names. This booklet is based on a variety of sources past and present, and to the journalists and photographers: thank you for sharing your work with the world. I have no idea how many people have been involved in digitizing historical newspapers, as their names are never on anything, but yall are fantastic and I appreciate you so much. Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images. Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the Lawrence High School protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful. The cover image is based on Lewis-Rolland (2021a). Contribute Information If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out via the Chem Weapons Research Website or submit an issue or pull request on our GitHub repository for the book. "],["introduction.html", "Introduction", " Introduction Late in the night on July 29th, during the height of the 2020 Uprising in Portland (OR), as protesters gathered outside the Hatfield Federal Courthouse to fight for racial justice, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)s Customs and Border Protection (CBP) used a thermal fogger to deploy unknown chemical agents on the crowd: Figure 1: CBP agent using a thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse, Portland OR (Brown 2020). With this seemingly novel usage, DHS made a large swath of the populace aware of an insidious weapon that is actually not new, but in fact was birthed in the American occupation of Vietnam, perfected for use against domestic protesters in the 1960s and 70s, and sent abroad via CBP in the years since. The subsequent return of the thermal fogger to use against civilians domestically by the same domestic law enforcement agency (CBP) that sent it abroad after its initial domestic use is an extension of the classical Imperialist Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976; Graham 2013) that can be more aptly described as a tetherball. Despite repeated use of thermal foggers to deploy chemical weapons over the last half century, the device appears to have slipped from the zeitgeist, only to reemerge in the city that experienced the most visible federal deployment of chemical weapons (Flanigan 2020) and weapons-based incidents of police brutality at racial justice protests (regardless of population size) (PB2020 Team 2021), perhaps due to the noteworthy density of photographers and videographers. Although not all of the weapons history is documented, enough is that we can quickly dispel the myth that this deployment was new in any notable sense other than being recent. "],["Science.html", "The Science of Thermal Fogging", " The Science of Thermal Fogging Broadly speaking, a fog is a visible aerosol that hangs in the air near the ground, and while it occurs on its own accord, humans have devised a variety of methods to generate fog. And many, if not all, of those methods have been used to deploy chemical weapons on people. The focus of this book is on thermal fogging. The idea behind thermal fogging is the same whether youre targeting mosquitoes in a marsh or protesters on a street: flash-vaporize a liquid being forced into a stream of cooler air, causing a fog to form as it condenses; move to increase the size of the cloud. The original chemical weapons thermal foggers employed the exhaust lines of diesel trucks or manifolds of 2-cycle engines to heat the formulation, which worked but were bulky and difficult to control in open areas (Crockett 1969). These models were quickly supplanted by foggers leveraging resonant pulsejet technology that were streamlined, lighter, and gave control of the stream to the operator (Applegate 1969) Figure 2: Concept drawing from the International Association of Chiefs of Police chemical agents manual (Crockett 1969). Regardless of the heating method specifics, the machine creates a visible fog from the mixture of gasoline exhaust, chemical weapons, and ambient air moisture, as desired. Although the mixture does cool considerably from its peak temperature before being released, the chemicals are heated to such high temperatures that they thermally decompose, creating a much more toxic mixture of gases that condense to form the fog. Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of common chemical contemporary chemical weapons are well below the temperatures achieved in a thermal fogger: Phenacyl chloride (CN): 248 C (Compton 1987) 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (CS): 450 - 550 C (Xue et al. 2015) Oleoresin Capsicum (OC): < 200 C (Henderson and Henderson 1992) Hexachloroethane (HC): 185 C (IARC 1979) Terephthalic Acid (TPA): 445 C (Kimyonok and Ulutürk 2016) As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixtures are likely to have considerably higher toxicities than product labels and safety sheets indicate, which are already concerning (Defense Technology 2015). "],["Vietnam.html", "Vietnam", " Vietnam The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century (USMACV 1965; Bunker 1996). Figure 3: US Military deploying a thermal fogger into a Vietnamese tunnel (Delf 2012). "],["context.html", "Context", " Context Mosquito Control Early in the deployment of US troops to occupy Vietnam, the need for large scale mosquito control became so great that soldiers began improvising insecticide foggers by piping insecticide into diesel truck exhaust: An insecticide fogger, one of the most useful improvisations, was made by mounting a [55-gallon oil] drum filled with 6 to 7 percent malathion insecticide in diesel oil on a 3/4-ton truck and spraying the poisonous mixture out with the exhaust from the vehicle. The insecticide is drawn from the drum by the partial vacuum in a line connected to the exhaust pipe just behind the manifold, and sprayed out under pressure of the exhaust. Spicknall (1969) The hack turned out to be 4,500 times more effective, covering nine square miles per day compared to 50,000 square feet (0.002 square miles) per day using a conventional manually operated fogger (Spicknall 1969). Given widespread mosquito concerns and the preponderance on diesel drums, the truck approach spread, and the concept of fogging was understood among servicemembers (USMACV 1965; Spicknall 1969). Tunnels As the occupation continued, underground bunkers and tunnels dug by the Viet Cong (VC) and Peoples Army of Vietnam (PAV) became a dominant presence on the both the literal and figurative battlefields (Rottman 2006, 2012). Figure 4: Hypothetical Vietnamese village with a two-level bunker tunnel system (Hanesalo 1996). Soldiers from the US, Australian, New Zealand, and other armies were tasked with clearing the tunnels and rooting out inhabitants (Hemmings 2019). The specialized forces designated for the work were dubbed Tunnel Rats and tear gas was part of their arsenal to flush individuals from caves, which they regularly deployed via pyrotechnic grenades and powdered explosives (Faas 1977; Rottman 2006). Figure 5: Tunnel rat in a gas mask, undated (Hemmings 2019) "],["Genesis.html", "Genesis", " Genesis Implementation In October of 1965, the USMACV (United States Military Assistance Command, Vietnam) was supporting the South Vietnamese Armys (ARVN) III Corps in a search and destroy operation in the Iron Triangle, an area known to house an elaborate Viet Cong tunnel system (USMACV 1965). Figure 6: US-defined War Zones C, D, and the Iron Triangle near Saigon, Vietnam (US Army 2005) The US Chemical Advisor to the ARVNs Chemical Team participated in planning the operation, and suggested using a Mity Mite (a.k.a. Mitey Mite, Mighty Mite) 2-cycle thermal fogger to aid in clearing tunnels. A 6-member unit of ARVN Chemical Team members was organized on October 7th for implementation of the fogger (USMACV 1965). The next day, the force located a tunnel and set into motion an elaborate scheme to fog the tunnels with hexachloroethane (HC) smoke from burning pots, marking the first known tactical use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons agents (USMACV 1965; Rottman 2012). Overall, the endeavor was dubbed a success, despite the tunnel already being empty (USMACV 1965). Although (highly toxic; Simonis (2020)) munitions smoke was used in this application, it was noted that tear gas would be very effective in flushing VC from tunnels should there been any present (USMACV 1965). According to the Lessons Learned report filed by the USMACV the next month, This is believed to have been the first tactical employment of Mity Mite by ARVN. [emphasis added] USMACV (1965) Note that there is no mention of use by USMACV prior to this deployment (USMACV 1965). What About Not In Tunnels? Seeing the Mity Mite in action got the wheels turning in the heads of USMACV officers, and the idea of deploying the fogger outside of tunnels was on the table (USMACV 1965). This is made clear in the Lessons Learned report, where they state that the Mity Mite portable blower can be used to generate an agent cloud for use against unmasked personnel in the open [emphasis added] USMACV (1965). At the time, however, the set up used powder, pot, and grenade sources of chemical agents, which was inefficient and required extensive supplies and gasoline reserves (USMACV 1965). Figure 7: Technical drawing of a backpack fogger (USMACV 1965) "],["expansion.html", "Expansion", " Expansion The practice caught on quickly, and Mity Mites were soon issued to ARVN units (USMACV 1965) and became common tools for Tunnel Rats (Rottman 2012). Figure 8: A soldier uses a backpack Mity Mite to fog a tunnel (US Army 1966) The Army used foggers to pump air or smoke into tunnels in combination with riot control agents during Operation Cedar falls in 1967 (Lehrer 1968). And by 1968s Battle of Khe Sanh, it was standard practice to use foggers for tunnel excavation as well as mosquito and fly control (Rottman 2006). Figure 9: Engineers unpack and test a Mitey-Mite blower (USAES 2003). In 1969, the US Army Limited War Laboratory published a report on chemical weapons that included a section on foggers and agents for use in them, naming the General Ordinance Equipment Corporation and Federal Laboratories models that were already in production and a propsed development of a formalized truck-based fogger (Samuels, Egner, and Campbell 1969): Figure 10: Existing and proposed fogging devices (Samuels, Egner, and Campbell 1969). "],["international-melting-pot.html", "International Melting Pot", " International Melting Pot Other countries explicitly supported the US colonization in Vietnam, providing a pathway for the fogger to be rapidly picked up by the armed forces of other nations. By 1966 the Australian Tunnel Rats were particularly fond of fogging tunnels with acetylene (MacGregor 1966a, 1966b). Figure 11: Double Acetylene Generator and a Mighty Mite Air Blower Used to Blow Fumes into Viet Cong Tunnels (MacGregor 1966a) Figure 12: Mighty Mite Machine Used to Contaminate Viet Cong Tunnel Systems with Acetylene (MacGregor 1966b) As expected, the fogger quickly made it to Australian police departments, although with a decidedly negative response from the news media, who called it highly controversial admist a Sydney Police spending scandal (P. Allen 1972). Unnamed Australian arms experts who spoke on background said there was no application for the fogger in the country (P. Allen 1972), although that hasnt stopped its use elsewhere. "],["TheReturn.html", "The Return", " The Return As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976), the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people (Graham 2013). Indeed, it took just three years from initial deployment in Vietnam on October 8 1965 to first application in the United States to gas Black racial justice protesters in Miami, Florida on August 8th, 1968 during the Liberty City Riots (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018). In alignment with the general Imperial Circuit of Tear Gas (Schrader 2019) between the US and Vietnam, the return of the fogger was aided significantly by the weapons industry, militarization of US police forces, transition of veterans to law enforcement upon returning home, and substantial propaganda in specialized and generalized outlets. "],["manufacturers.html", "Manufacturers", " Manufacturers American companies quickly jumped at the opportunity to refine the bulky, complicated Mitey Mite and sell thermal foggers to the military and domestic police departments. As early as 1969, The International Association of Chiefs of Police included a detailed section on thermal fogging and available models in their Chemical Agents Manual (Crockett 1969), providing prime trade-focused marketing. Indeed, both Federal Laboratories and General Ordnance Equipment Corporation models were included. Sears Roebuck The original Mighty Mite that established the fogger as a method of chemical dispersal was manufactured by Sears, Roebuck, and Co. for insecticide application (Applegate 1969). Figure 13: M-106 Mity Mite Thermal Fogger, as promoted to law enforcement in Applegate (1969). The bulkiness of the Mity Mite backpack proved to be a hindrance in mobile application, however, and while chemical weapons corporations began their fogger lines with hand-held models using 2-cycle engines, there was a push to produce a more streamlined and specialized tool for fogging chemical weapons at civilians (Applegate 1969, 1970). Figure 14: Hand-held two-cycle thermal fogger (Crockett 1969). Sears does not appear to have entered The Mity Mite into the law enforcement market, perhaps due to the companys existing legacy branding, and the model never established itself in the domestic market. Federal Laboratories Federal Laboratories, one of the major US manufacturers of chemical weapons starting after World War I, developed a hand-held 2-cycle thermal fogger that did not need a backpack or hoses: Figure 15: The Federal Laboratories Federal Fogger 298 (Federal Laboratories 1980). Figure 16: Officer demonstrating the Federal Laboratories 298 (Applegate 1992). General Ordnance Equipment Corporation The General Ordnance Equipment Corporation (GOEC), who invented and trademarked Chemical Mace earlier in the decade, had been bought-out by Smith and Wesson by the late 1960s when the fogger market opened up (Gross 2014). Alan Litman, the brains behind GOEC, retained leadership of chemical weapons development after the buy-out, however (Gross 2014), and he must have seen an opportunity, as GOEC began selling hand-held thermal foggers in July 1968 (Applegate 1969). They named their units Pepper Fog generators, a nod to their apparent ability to pepper the recipient with more concentrated bursts of fog if desired, compared to the steady stream output from the Mity Mite (Applegate 1969), and applied for a trademark on the phrase in October of the same year (USTPO 2018). By the end of August 1969, GOEC (and thus Smith and Wesson) had received the trademark on Pepper Fog, which they (and subsequent owners) retained until it expired in 1991 (USTPO 2018). While GOEC did develop and sell a stationary 2-cycle model for vehicle mounting, it was their hand-held pulse-jet model that took the market by storm (Crockett 1969). Figure 17: General Ordnance Equipment Corporation thermal fogger (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969b), as shown in Applegate (1969). They immediately began a heavy marketing campaign for their new invention, taking out full-page ads in police magazines (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969a, 1969c, 1970): Figure 18: GOEC advertisement (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969a). They also leveraged the connection between local law enforcement and the press to generate free marketing with an international reach. It is perhaps no surprise then that virtually all of the foggers photographed being used in the US prior to 2020 are GOEC models. Defense Technology The corporate descendent of both GOEC and Federal Labs and current owner of the legacy branding (Safariland subsidiary Defense Technology) continues to sell items under a Pepper Fog line, including a pepper fog generator that utilizes the same pulse-jet generation technique (Safariland, LLC 2020a): Figure 19: Product image for thermal fogger (Safariland, LLC 2020b). This has supplanted the models produced by the corporate ancestors to Defense Technology, which were bulkier and considerably heavier (Samuels, Egner, and Campbell 1969). "],["rex-applegate.html", "Rex Applegate", " Rex Applegate A major figure in the translation of military riot suppression tactics to domestic law enforcement in the 1960s and 1970s was a former US Army Lt. Colonel named Rex Applegate. Applegate took a commission as a second leuitenant, but had a lung ailment kept him from serving in combat in World War II and so was assigned to Military Police Company before being tapped by Col. William Donovan to build and run the School for Spies and Assassins in the Office of Strategic Services (Goldstein 1998). Larger than life, Rex even served as bodyguard to President Franklin Roosevelt, before retiring and moving to Mexico at the end of World War II to consult with Central and South American governments on riot control (Goldstein 1998). Applegate returned to the US in the 1960s during the civil rights and anti-war protest era and began proselytizing the good word of the thermal fogger (Applegate 1969, 1970). Indeed, Rex published what can only be described as a long-form written sales pitch for the GOEC Pepper Fog thermal fogger in the highly circulated Guns magazine in 1970 (Applegate 1970). Figure 20: Demonstration of a pepper fogger (Applegate 1970) "],["Propa.html", "News Media Propaganda", " News Media Propaganda Alongside the more overtly pro-police-use-of-chemical-weapons propaganda of Rex Applegate were other, perhaps more subtle forms of pro-fogger propaganda (Macomber 1970). Newspapers around the country were more than happy to print articles that promoted the new arsenals police departments were building (LaPrade 1970), complete with product demo photos. Figure 21: Amarillo Texas Police Sergent Jerry Austin with a thermal fogger and shotgun (Vance 1970). Amarillos 1970 population was 127,010 (USCB 1971). Figure 22: Richland County (Ohio) Sheriffs Captain Robert Dysart demonstrating a thermal fogger to a crowd of >200 people (Aman 1970). Richland Countys 1970 population was 129,997 (USCB 1971). General Ordnance Equipment Corporations Pepper Fog model seems to have been the favorite, at least amongst the departments showing off their new cool toys for photographs. Figure 23: A McHenry County (Illinois) Sheriffs officer fogs some grass in a rural landscape during a training and press demo day (Wayne Gaylord 1971; The McHenry Plaindealer 1971). McHenry Countys 1970 population was 111,555 (USCB 1971). Figure 24: Scott County (Iowa) deputy sheriff Jim Lewis, left, holds a new grenade launcher and a riot gun while Sheriff William Strout displays a pepper fogger and gas mask (Winter 1970). Scott Countys 1970 population was 142,687 (USCB 1971). Gary Wills Pulitzer Prize-winning Garry Wills (who at the time was considerably more conservative than he came to be later) penned an op-ed that ran in (at least) The Herald Statesman (Yonkers, New York) (Wills 1971a), The Daily Item (Port Chester, New York) (Wills 1971b), The Charlotte News (Charlotte, North Carolina) (Wills 1971c), and The Philadelphia Inquirer (Wills 1971d) in April 1971 in which he basically tells all the cry babies (pun intended) to suck it up because he would not be afraid to undergo such experiences [as being pepper fogged] again (Wills 1971a). Notably, he touts the leading belief at the time that somehow thermal fogging is a safe immobilizer of individuals (Wills 1971a), despite the weapon not being demonstrably safer than gas grenades and not only not immobilizing but explicitly designed to mobilize immobile resisters. Wills interestingly deems chemical weapons as safer than dogs, which get out of control, bite bystanders (and even other cops) as well as the bad guys (Wills 1971a), despite their being indiscriminate to the point of impacting bystanders, police officers, etc.. He concludes his piece by calling tear gas humane in foreign wars [and] domestic encounters (Wills 1971a), speaking clearly to the return of the trip of the classically defined Imperial Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976). "],["The1968Conventions.html", "The 1968 Conventions", " The 1968 Conventions Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions (McArdle 2018; Taylor and Morris 2018). As a result of a heavy propaganda and branding campaign, the thermal fogger was just becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. Beyond their legacy as the first domestic fogger deployments, the lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come. The Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids (Hudson 1976). "],["MiamiFL1968-08-08.html", "Miami, August 8", " Miami, August 8 The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the Liberty City Riots, which took place in during the 1968 Republican National Convention (RNC) in Miami, Florida (Tschenschlok 1995, 1996; McArdle 2018). A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th (Tschenschlok 1995, 1996). When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a Wallace for President bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018). Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions (Tschenschlok 1995, 1996). Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city (Tschenschlok 1995). FHP used a truck with multiple foggers (Lorentze 2018), described as essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine that spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone (Tschenschlok 1995). FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old (McArdle 2018). The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air (Tschenschlok 1995). "],["ChicagoIL1968-08-26.html", "Chicago, August 26 - 29", " Chicago, August 26 - 29 Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the Democratic National Convention, and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops (Taylor and Morris 2018)) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news (Schultz 1969; Karnow 1983; Farber 1988; Langguth 2000). After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons (Taylor and Morris 2018). Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in Berkeley the year later states A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - Associated Press (1969b) As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. I am continuing to search for evidence. "],["BerkeleyCA1968-08-31.html", "Berkeley, August 31", " Berkeley, August 31 A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized (United Press International 1968b, 1968d), including use of a pepper fogger (Associated Press 1969b). In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a new police weapon which produced a gas that caused sneezing (United Press International 1968b). Figure 25: Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA (United Press International 1968g). Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey (United Press International 1968b); Hanford, California (United Press International 1968c); Honolulu, Hawaii (United Press International 1968h); St. Louis, Missouri (United Press International 1968f); Franklin, Pennsylvania (United Press International 1968a); Madison, Wisconsin (United Press International 1968d); and El Paso, Texas (United Press International 1968e), a city whose significance was already budding. It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a GOEC brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior (USTPO 2018). The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name (Pepper Fog) for another year (USTPO 2018). Figure 26: Product image for thermal fogger (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969b). "],["coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you.html", "Coming Soon To A Town Near You!", " Coming Soon To A Town Near You! Following the conventions, the fogger quickly became a part of the law enforcement arsenal. US police had a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out across the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s (The McHenry Plaindealer 1971). "],["from-the-conventions-outward.html", "From the Conventions Outward", " From the Conventions Outward Illinois In the wake of the 1968 Democratic National Convention, Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. The pepper fogger was touted as being able to empty a house fast by Cook County Illinois Sheriff Joseph Woods (Harris 1969b, 1969c), a definitely off-spec and dangerous use (Nixalite 2009b). The volume of fog emitted was also said to be able to fill Soldier Field (capacity 61,500 fans) in under a minute (Harris 1969c). Regardless, the Chicago-area Sheriff decided they needed three of them (Harris 1969c). The Sheriffs Major in charge of chemical arsenal Anthony Yucevicius noted the foggers psychological effect on recipients, as well saying They make a terrifying noise and probably will have a scare effect on crowds. Harris (1969a). Use expanded among and within states, as by 1972 the Illinois State Police also purchased three foggers, which they trained with in Springfield (Robinson 1972). In news reports, the foggers were described as a cross between a machine gun, a power lawn mower, and a sun lamp. Robinson (1972). Florida Similarly, following the 1968 Republican National Convention, Florida law enforcement took to the fogger (Cain 1968). In Sanford (1970 pop. 17,393; USCB (1971)), the local police department purchased a fogger for use with CN gas, noting that it could shoot fog 20 ft for up to a 15 minute stretch, and so would be effective for controlling large masses (Cain 1968). They had, however, only used it in training and for demoing to the media (Cain 1968). Figure 27: Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). California Eager to not be shown up by the police in Berkeley, by 1970, the Los Angeles Sheriffs Department had already purchased their own fogger for their big artillery to use when other forms of persuasion have failed and started a media campaign (Michals 1970). The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chemical weapons use, which was set up through Officer Robert Hawkins (Michals 1970). Figure 28: Los Angeles Sheriffs Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). "],["national-guard.html", "National Guard", " National Guard Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of less lethal options (Bandy 1970). "],["small-town-usa.html", "Small Town USA", " Small Town USA No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; USCB (1971)) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 (Box Elder Agencies 1971). Police Chief Jay Christensen noted that the fogger provides a longer shelf-life than grenades and reportage noted that it emits a continuous stream of smoke, chemical irritants, or whatever solution is fed into it. [emphasis added] Robinson (1972) Use of federal funds to purchase chemical weapons, and specifically foggers, was not limited to one department. Cities, counties, and states across the country used Omnibus Crime Bill money to up their chemical weapons caches, including foggers (Conheim 1972). For example, Oakland County in Michigan (1970 pop. 907,871; USCB (1971)) purchased two pepper foggers for their South County Tactical Mobile Unit with part of their $21,066 in 1970 (Conheim 1972). Oneota New York (1970 pop. 16,030; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1969 during the anti-war demonstrations, although the department bungled its response to protests (Griffin 1973). As came to light during a public probe, Oneota Police Chief Joseph F. DeSalvatore requested a limited amount of training in the budget, and officers were therefore unable to deploy the fogger or other chemical weapons (Griffin 1973). Gaston County North Caolina (1970 pop. 47,322; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs purchased a fogger, which they turned on but not used to dispense agents multiple times by 1970 in their jail system when theres been trouble brewing (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970a). Figure 29: Gaston County Sheriffs Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). Apparently the threat of death by chemical weapons fog is sufficient to scare detained individuals into compliance. Within a few years, however, departments began to realize they had no need for the machines, and began selling them with no use aside from testing (Des Moines Tribune 1975). The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1971 in advance of a motorcycle rally that never happened, and used free advertising in local media in attempts to pawn it (Des Moines Tribune 1975). The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers on occasion in Des Moines (Iowas capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; USCB (1971)) in addition to one instance on the University of Iowas campus (Des Moines Tribune 1975), although I have not located contemporaneous mentions. "],["Canada.html", "Crossing to Canada", " Crossing to Canada Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use (Patterson 1976). A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers (Patterson 1976). Figure 30: Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). "],["university-cities.html", "University Cities", " University Cities Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests, many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons. The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970). "],["durham.html", "Durham", " Durham Durham North Carolina Police broke up the Allen Building Demonstration taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger (Jolley and Olive 1969; Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b). The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel (Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b). Figure 31: Deployment of a thermal fogger by police on Duke Campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). Figure 32: Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). "],["berkeley.html", "Berkeley", " Berkeley February 21 1969 A year after using the fogger on a protest held in solidarity with the Chicago Protest, police in Berkeley again deployed a fogger to clear demonstrators including striking students from outside a University Regents and Sproul Hall plaza on the University of California campus. Figure 33: Police use a pepper fogger and other chemical weapons to clear a University plaza (Associated Press 1969j). This deployment was covered in papers across the country including the Press-Telegram (Long Beach, California) (Associated Press 1969g), The Jackson Sun (Jackson, Tennessee) (Associated Press 1969c), The Daily Tribune (Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969b), The Sumter Daily Item (Sumter, South Carolina) (Associated Press 1969d), The New Mexican (Santa Fe, New Mexico) (Associated Press 1969e), Janesville Daily Gazette (Janesville, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969h), and Messenger-Inquirer (Owensboro, Kentucky) (Associated Press 1969i). Figure 34: Police engulf a University plaza in chemical fog (Associated Press 1969j). Canadian newspapers detailed the fogger use as well, specifically the Red Deer Advocate Red Deer, Alberta, Canada) (Associated Press 1969f) and The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan) (Associated Press 1969a). February 28 1969 The following week, the police in Berkeley were joined by California National Guard troops to attack strikers, and continued to use the pepper fogger (Associated Press 1969m, 1969n). Figure 35: National guardsmen and police fog UC Berkeley (Associated Press 1969k). Figure 36: View from behind of the police using a pepper fogger on striking students (Associated Press 1969l). May 15 1969 Alameda County sheriffs deployed a pepper fogger on UC Berkeleys campus again during the Peoples Park Riots of 1969 (Los Angeles Times 1969; Hayes 1970). The riot apparently started when the university tried to prevent individuals living on the street from a volunteer-run park they built on a lot owned by the school (United Press International 1970). The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this time fogged neighborhoods from the back of a Jeep: Figure 37: California National Guards Gas Jeep (Rosenberg 1969). "],["seattle.html", "Seattle", " Seattle Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with hundreds of unruly youths in the University District on August 14 1969 (Associated Press 1969p). Witnesses recounted that the machine was highly effective, filling 2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute (Associated Press 1969p). "],["CollegeParkMD1970-05-04.html", "College Park", " College Park On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixons expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park (Washington Area Spark 2013). Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus (Cabe 1970). By later in the day, UMD students had heard about the Ohio National Guard shooting four Kent State students and took up a position in front on and inside the UMD Chapel (Washington Area Spark 2013), which did not stop the chemical weapons barrage or the use of the fogger specifically (Oates 1970) Figure 38: Police fog the University of Maryland (Cabe 1970). Figure 39: Police fog the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970). The Maryland State Police liked the GOEC fogger so much they included it in their Manual on Civil Disturbances as a tool for deploying CS gas (Maryland State Police 1972): Figure 40: Maryland State Polices GOEC pepper fogger (Maryland State Police 1972). "],["IowaCity.html", "Iowa City", " Iowa City Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 (Eckholt 1971). The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as unidentified because the Sheriff refused to publicly name the compounds, including to the news media (Eckholt 1971). "],["Minneapolis1972-05-10.html", "Minneapolis", " Minneapolis Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors (Associated Press 1972b). In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger (Associated Press 1972a; Star Tribune 1972). The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) (Star Tribune 1972). "],["gainesville.html", "Gainesville", " Gainesville Similarly to the anti-mine protests in Minneapolis, on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed The Monster which spewed tear gas (Associated Press 1972a). Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first deployed thermal foggers via a truck in 1968 (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018). "],["high-schools.html", "High Schools", " High Schools Almost immediately, law enforcement extended use of foggers from universities to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. I will stop to repeat that again so that we can all (myself included) reflect on this. Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels. "],["SanGordonio.html", "San Gordonio", " San Gordonio Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) (United Press International 1969a) on November 20, 1969 references a recent use of the fogger on students. Figure 41: Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School (United Press International 1969b). Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a major racial confrontation among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus (Yetzer et al. 1971). "],["Lawrence1970-04-21.html", "Lawrence", " Lawrence Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members (Monhollon 2002). The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards (Monhollon 2002). Black students had occuppied the principals office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school (Monhollon 2002). Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers (Monhollon 2002). The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout (Monhollon 2002). The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the GOEC Pepper Fog fogger: Figure 42: Police bring a GOEC pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School (University of Kansas Archives 1970). "],["racial-justice.html", "Racial Justice", " Racial Justice Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general (Morman et al. 2020). It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the Liberty City Riots, a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of used explicitly during that time (Askren 1992). For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson (Askren 1992). The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests (PB2020 Team 2021). Since then, the fogger has been deployed three additional times by CBP in Portland, all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. "],["danville-il.html", "Danville IL", " Danville IL Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; (USCB 1971)) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations (Associated Press 1969o), August 10th 1969. "],["PortlandOR2020-2021.html", "Portland OR", " Portland OR July 29 2020 At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to protect federal property in Portland, OR (USDHS 2020; Flanigan 2020; Trump 2020). During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger (Sal 2020a), which has been identified through photos as an IGEBA TF35 thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while training tool for military/law enforcement is listed among its uses (Nixalite 2009a), its safety requirements explicitly state: 19. Do not fog directly against personsDuring operation keep distance of minimum [10 ft]. - (Nixalite 2009b) Figure 43: CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse (Brown 2020). Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property While the thermal fogger hasnt been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Simonis 2021) the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 (Dubois 2018). The first of such deployments occurred during the fall of 2020. Along with cities across the country, Portland hosted many events on October 17th focused around the racial and gender justice (Sal 2020b). In the evening, there was a gathering at Willamette Park in the Southwest part of the city, where organizers passed out balloons detailing harrowing experiences of migrants and immigrants detained by ICE (Sal 2020b). After marching to the ICE rental property, individuals tied the balloons to the gate to the parking garage, and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents including Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers deployed massive amounts of chemical weapons, including via a thermal fogger, throughout the neighborhood (Sal 2020b). Figure 44: CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood (Lake 2020). Inaugration 2021 The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day (J20) Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building (Sal 2021a). The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school (Sal 2021a; Simonis 2021). Figure 45: CBP officer holding thermal fogger (Staab 2021). That weekend, CBP deployed the fogger again during Abolish ICE protests, this time gassing even more of the neighborhood, including the local public school and veterans-preference housing (Sal 2021b; Simonis 2021). Figure 46: CBP agent holding thermal fogger (Lewis-Rolland 2021a). Figure 47: CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Lewis-Rolland 2021b). "],["labor.html", "Labor", " Labor Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island (Associated Press 1982b; Carbone 2017). A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory (Associated Press 1982b; Carbone 2017). The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them (Carbone 2017). Figure 48: Police fog striking workers and their families (Associated Press 1982a). The fogging did not, however, break the strike (Carbone 2017). Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe (Carbone 2017). "],["celebrations.html", "Celebrations", " Celebrations On occassion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. 1975 New Years Eve New Years Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force (United Press International 1976a). In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach (United Press International 1976a). Figure 49: Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach (United Press International 1975a). The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette (United Press International 1976b) as well as the Tampa Tribune (United Press International 1976a). 1974 NHRA Nationals Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Associations US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 (Associated Press 1974b, 1974a). "],["CarceralSystem.html", "The Carceral System", " The Carceral System Like many chemical weapons devices, thermal foggers are used in local, state, and federal carceral systems. Unfortunately most deployments go undocumented or such documents never see the light of day. It seems that the only time we find out about prisoners being fogged is when a serious incident occurs triggering outside investigations and the judicial system. "],["BigMac.html", "Big Mac", " Big Mac In the 1970s, the McAlester (Big Mac) Oklahoma State Penitentiary was the site of considerable resistance and rioting by inmates (The Rag 1975; Winter Soldier 1975). A major tool used by the guards in retaliation was tear gas, which they deployed via shot shells, grenades, and pepper foggers (R. B. Allen 1974a, 1975a, 1975b; Coffey 1975b). Given its use here, it is highly likely that the Oklahoma State Penitentiary system used pepper foggers before (and likely after) (Johnson 1974). The guards regularly isolated the uprisings leaders in the solitary confinement building known as The Rock, sealed the building, and gassed it so thick it lasted for days (R. B. Allen 1974b; The Rag 1975). During the May 20 1974 gassings in response to riots, Black prisoner Robert Forsythe, a 33-year old serving time for a robbery, happened to be in solitary confinement due to being caught with contraband money and was not associated with the uprising directly, and so inexperienced with the effects of gas (Johnson 1974; The Rag 1975; Wilson 1993). Although reports are conflicting on details, guards started fogging and gassing prisoners who were, at most, rattling their doors (Hobbs 1974). The likely reason for the barrage was retaliatory, as it was unjustified according to a veteran guard (Coffey 1975a). During the gassings, a pepper fogger was specifically used in the building and created fumes of gas [that] were awfully heavy, one of the worst Ive ever seen according to veteran corrections officers trial testimony (R. B. Allen 1975b; Coffey 1975a). The gassing lasted for four hours despite yells for help, resulting in serious injuries including burned and blistered skin, eyes swollen shut, and breathing difficulties (Coffey 1975b). That intense fogging and lack of medical attention over the next two days were main factors contributing to Forsythes injuries and death two days later, according to medical experts testimony (R. B. Allen 1974b, 1975a, 1975b). Although the guards involved were indicted by a grand jury and brought to trial, they ultimately were acquitted of all charges (United Press International 1975b, 1975c). "],["union-correctional.html", "Union Correctional", " Union Correctional According to the superintendent, a riot was caused in the Florida State Prisons Union Correctional Institution in Raiford on July 5th, 1981 by 22 prisoners who were intoxicated, and the only way to subdue them was to deploy a thermal fogger (United Press International 1981). As a result of two officers being slightly injured and three inmates being stabbed, an investigation was launched that caused the event to be picked up in the newspapers (United Press International 1981). "],["dade-county.html", "Dade County", " Dade County Dade County Sheriffs used foggers to sweep a field on July 17th 1974 in search of a murder suspect that had eluded K-9 units, helicopters, a plane, and an attempt to flush him out by burning the field (Associated Press and United Press International 1974). The suspect was so well dug in that he could withstand significant gassing that surprised a Sheriffs sergeant who participated in the operation (Associated Press and United Press International 1974). "],["accidents.html", "Accidents", " Accidents Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation (Judd 1981). On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshals office when their victim and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains (Judd 1981). Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshals office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training (Judd 1981). Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds (The Courier-Journal 1982), indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use safe smoke. "],["CBP.html", "Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging", " Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently (Miller 2019). Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. International Trafficking Within a year and a half of the foggers arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government (Star Tribune 1973). Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations (Star Tribune 1973). Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State (United Press International 1972). Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position (Star Tribune 1973). Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the Drug War (Chepesiuk 1999), it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. BORTAC By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings (USCBP 2006, 2014, 2018). BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; USCBP (2006)), providing a wide range of services (USCBP 2014; Miller 2019). BORTACs specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers (USCBP 2006, 2014), noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States carceral system. BORTAC would be the unit to bring the thermal fogger back to use against domestic civilian protesters during the Black Lives Matter and Ablolish ICE protests in Portland Oregon during 2020 and 2021. Indeed, Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico (Borunda 2020). "],["References.html", "References", " References "]] +[["index.html", "The Thermal Fogger An Imperial Tetherball ", " The Thermal Fogger An Imperial Tetherball Dr. Juniper L. Simonis 2021-07-05 "],["preface.html", "Preface", " Preface An archived version of this book is available on Zenodo. "],["content-warning.html", "Content Warning", " Content Warning This book deals with police and corrections violence in frank terminology. Pictures of chemical weapons being deployed on individuals, including those passively resisting, are included, but no injuries, blood, gore, etc. are shown. Casualties, including fatalities, are discussed, including an individual being killed by corrections officers. "],["land-acknowledgment.html", "Land Acknowledgment", " Land Acknowledgment This works impetus comes from present-day Portland, Oregon, United States of America the Indigenous land of the Chinook people, who were colonized and spread across multiple federally recognized tribes in Oregon, Washington and Idaho including Cowlitz, Siletz, Wasco, and Yakima. Chemical weapons are a common tool among imperialist regimes. The events cataloged in this book occur at many locations across the present-day United States and internationally, with specific references to Canada, Mexico, and Vietnam, where colonizing forces of (predominately Northwestern) Europe have used forced labor from enslaved Black people to impose significant force on Indigenous cultures and individuals. No words can fully encompass the place in which each of the stories told in this book occur. I will work to add important contextual information and acknowledgments, and please remember that each use of a thermal fogger or other brutal police force described here impacted many, many lives. I ask you to take time to reflect on the countless individuals from communities, tribes, peoples, and cultures around the world that have been fogged with some chemical agent whose names we will never know, whose stories we will never hear. "],["inherent-bias.html", "Inherent Bias", " Inherent Bias This book has been produced by collating historical documentation and records, which are inherently biased towards the views of white, male colonizers, as will be plainly evident in the documents. As such, it is important to recognize that there are almost certainly records that I have not yet found or which have been lost to time. Even more critical, however, is that many uses of thermal foggers have likely never been recorded at all (even if legally required), as will be made clear through the documents that have been recovered. "],["author-position.html", "Author Position", " Author Position I, Dr. Juniper L. Simonis (they/them/theirs), am a 36-year-old middle-class, white, non-binary, queer, physically and psychologically disabled person. I come to the study of the history of chemical weapons use in America via my personal experience being the recipient of law enforcements chemical weapons and my ensuing scientific research into its impacts on the environment. I have a PhD in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Cornell, where I studied aquatic ecology and biogeochemistry disciplines I have put to use to studying the impact of chemical weapons. Through my ecological research, I have uncovered historical and current information into the impacts of chemical weapons that I was not seeing being represented in the present day broad cultural discourse. From this need to share historical information came this book, a way for me to pass along a window into the racist, classist, capitalistic, and colonialistic throughline of the thermal fogger. I am an abolitionist in multiple senses: I believe that the use of chemical weapons, police, and the carceral system should all be abolished, full-stop. Through this work, I have discovered an extensive history that makes me feel a deep connection to my protest elders who experienced thermal foggers decades ago. I hope that my work will bring light to their stories. We are but the most recent chapter in a long history of United States Law Enforcement using chemical weapons against its own people. "],["financial-statement.html", "Financial Statement", " Financial Statement All work for this product was conducted by Dr. Juniper L. Simonis via internal time at DAPPER Stats. No external funding was provided. "],["licenses.html", "Licenses", " Licenses This book it created under a dual license that recognizes a separation between the software and non-software components. All underlying documents (photos, etc.) are cited in the References and references do not indicate the original licensor endorses this book or its authors. "],["acknowledgments.html", "Acknowledgments", " Acknowledgments My deepest heartfelt condolences to the family of Robert Forsythe. I cannot even begin to imagine the impact Bobbys murder and the subsequent trial and media presence had on you and your community. I hope that by shining a light on his story now, more people will come to understand just how horrendous the prison system is and fight for its abolition. The story of Robert Forsythe is almost certainly not unique, and only public knowledge because of the trial against the corrections officers. I recognize that many others have been killed by thermal foggers, yet we will never know their names. This booklet is based on a variety of sources past and present, and to the journalists and photographers: thank you for sharing your work with the world. I have no idea how many people have been involved in digitizing historical newspapers, as their names are never on anything, but yall are fantastic and I appreciate you so much. Sandra Simonis provided significant help with writing alt-text for images. Twitter users NewNameJeanette and WillHickox notified me of the Lawrence High School protest and use of the thermal fogger, for which I am very thankful. Christophe Dervieux provided an example of how to render figure alt-text in an appendix: https://cderv.rbind.io/2021/06/29/fig-alt-appendix/. The cover image is based on Lewis-Rolland (2021a). "],["contribute-information.html", "Contribute Information", " Contribute Information If you are aware of incidents where a pepper fogger was used to deploy chemical weapons that we have not included, please reach out via the Chem Weapons Research Website or submit an issue or pull request on our GitHub repository for the book. "],["introduction.html", "Introduction", " Introduction Late in the night on July 29th, during the height of the 2020 Uprising in Portland (OR), as protesters gathered outside the Hatfield Federal Courthouse to fight for racial justice, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)s Customs and Border Protection (CBP) used a thermal fogger to deploy unknown chemical agents on the crowd: Figure 1: CBP agent using a thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse, Portland OR (Brown 2020). With this seemingly novel usage, DHS made a large swath of the populace aware of an insidious weapon that is actually not new, but in fact was birthed in the American occupation of Vietnam, perfected for use against domestic protesters in the 1960s and 70s, and sent abroad via CBP in the years since. The subsequent return of the thermal fogger to use against civilians domestically by the same domestic law enforcement agency (CBP) that sent it abroad after its initial domestic use is an extension of the classical Imperialist Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976; Graham 2013) that can be more aptly described as a tetherball. Despite repeated use of thermal foggers to deploy chemical weapons over the last half century, the device appears to have slipped from the zeitgeist, only to reemerge in the city that experienced the most visible federal deployment of chemical weapons (Flanigan 2020) and weapons-based incidents of police brutality at racial justice protests (regardless of population size) (PB2020 Team 2021), perhaps due to the noteworthy density of photographers and videographers. Although not all of the weapons history is documented, enough is that we can quickly dispel the myth that this deployment was new in any notable sense other than being recent. "],["Science.html", "The Science of Thermal Fogging", " The Science of Thermal Fogging Broadly speaking, a fog is a visible aerosol that hangs in the air near the ground, and while it occurs on its own accord, humans have devised a variety of methods to generate fog. And many, if not all, of those methods have been used to deploy chemical weapons on people. The focus of this book is on thermal fogging. The idea behind thermal fogging is the same whether youre targeting mosquitoes in a marsh or protesters on a street: flash-vaporize a liquid being forced into a stream of cooler air, causing a fog to form as it condenses; move to increase the size of the cloud. The original chemical weapons thermal foggers employed the exhaust lines of diesel trucks or manifolds of 2-cycle engines to heat the formulation, which worked but were bulky and difficult to control in open areas (Crockett 1969). These models were quickly supplanted by foggers leveraging resonant pulsejet technology that were streamlined, lighter, and gave control of the stream to the operator (Applegate 1969) Figure 2: Concept drawing from the International Association of Chiefs of Police chemical agents manual (Crockett 1969). Regardless of the heating method specifics, the machine creates a visible fog from the mixture of gasoline exhaust, chemical weapons, and ambient air moisture, as desired. Although the mixture does cool considerably from its peak temperature before being released, the chemicals are heated to such high temperatures that they thermally decompose, creating a much more toxic mixture of gases that condense to form the fog. Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of common chemical contemporary chemical weapons are well below the temperatures achieved in a thermal fogger: Phenacyl chloride (CN): 248 C (Compton 1987) 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (CS): 450 - 550 C (Xue et al. 2015) Oleoresin Capsicum (OC): < 200 C (Henderson and Henderson 1992) Hexachloroethane (HC): 185 C (IARC 1979) Terephthalic Acid (TPA): 445 C (Kimyonok and Ulutürk 2016) As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixtures are likely to have considerably higher toxicities than product labels and safety sheets indicate, which are already concerning (Defense Technology 2015). "],["Vietnam.html", "A Colonial Tool", " A Colonial Tool The modern day use of thermal foggers for chemical weapons deployment was born from the American colonization of Vietnam in the mid-to-late-20th Century (USMACV 1965; Bunker 1996). Figure 3: US Military deploying a thermal fogger into a Vietnamese tunnel (Delf 2012). "],["context.html", "Context", " Context Mosquito Control Early in the deployment of US troops to occupy Vietnam, the need for large scale mosquito control became so great that soldiers began improvising insecticide foggers by piping insecticide into diesel truck exhaust: An insecticide fogger, one of the most useful improvisations, was made by mounting a [55-gallon oil] drum filled with 6 to 7 percent malathion insecticide in diesel oil on a 3/4-ton truck and spraying the poisonous mixture out with the exhaust from the vehicle. The insecticide is drawn from the drum by the partial vacuum in a line connected to the exhaust pipe just behind the manifold, and sprayed out under pressure of the exhaust. Spicknall (1969) The hack turned out to be 4,500 times more effective, covering nine square miles per day compared to 50,000 square feet (0.002 square miles) per day using a conventional manually operated fogger (Spicknall 1969). Given widespread mosquito concerns and the preponderance on diesel drums, the truck approach spread, and the concept of fogging was understood among servicemembers (USMACV 1965; Spicknall 1969). Tunnels As the occupation continued, underground bunkers and tunnels dug by the Viet Cong (VC) and Peoples Army of Vietnam (PAV) became a dominant presence on the both the literal and figurative battlefields (Rottman 2006, 2012). Figure 4: Hypothetical Vietnamese village with a two-level bunker tunnel system (Hanesalo 1996). Soldiers from the US, Australian, New Zealand, and other armies were tasked with clearing the tunnels and rooting out inhabitants (Hemmings 2019). The specialized forces designated for the work were dubbed Tunnel Rats and tear gas was part of their arsenal to flush individuals from caves, which they regularly deployed via pyrotechnic grenades and powdered explosives (Faas 1977; Rottman 2006). Figure 5: Tunnel rat in a gas mask, undated (Hemmings 2019) "],["Genesis.html", "Genesis", " Genesis Implementation In October of 1965, the USMACV (United States Military Assistance Command, Vietnam) was supporting the South Vietnamese Armys (ARVN) III Corps in a search and destroy operation in the Iron Triangle, an area known to house an elaborate Viet Cong tunnel system (USMACV 1965). Figure 6: US-defined War Zones C, D, and the Iron Triangle near Saigon, Vietnam (US Army 2005) The US Chemical Advisor to the ARVNs Chemical Team participated in planning the operation, and suggested using a Mity Mite (a.k.a. Mitey Mite, Mighty Mite) 2-cycle thermal fogger to aid in clearing tunnels. A 6-member unit of ARVN Chemical Team members was organized on October 7th for implementation of the fogger (USMACV 1965). The next day, the force located a tunnel and set into motion an elaborate scheme to fog the tunnels with hexachloroethane (HC) smoke from burning pots, marking the first known tactical use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons agents (USMACV 1965; Rottman 2012). Overall, the endeavor was dubbed a success, despite the tunnel already being empty (USMACV 1965). Although (highly toxic; Simonis (2020)) munitions smoke was used in this application, it was noted that tear gas would be very effective in flushing VC from tunnels should there been any present (USMACV 1965). According to the Lessons Learned report filed by the USMACV the next month, This is believed to have been the first tactical employment of Mity Mite by ARVN. [emphasis added] USMACV (1965) Note that there is no mention of use by USMACV prior to this deployment (USMACV 1965). What About Not In Tunnels? Seeing the Mity Mite in action got the wheels turning in the heads of USMACV officers, and the idea of deploying the fogger outside of tunnels was on the table (USMACV 1965). This is made clear in the Lessons Learned report, where they state that the Mity Mite portable blower can be used to generate an agent cloud for use against unmasked personnel in the open [emphasis added] USMACV (1965). At the time, however, the set up used powder, pot, and grenade sources of chemical agents, which was inefficient and required extensive supplies and gasoline reserves (USMACV 1965). Figure 7: Technical drawing of a backpack fogger (USMACV 1965) "],["expansion.html", "Expansion", " Expansion The practice caught on quickly, and Mity Mites were soon issued to ARVN units (USMACV 1965) and became common tools for Tunnel Rats (Rottman 2012). Figure 8: A soldier uses a backpack Mity Mite to fog a tunnel (US Army 1966) The Army used foggers to pump air or smoke into tunnels in combination with riot control agents during Operation Cedar falls in 1967 (Lehrer 1968). And by 1968s Battle of Khe Sanh, it was standard practice to use foggers for tunnel excavation as well as mosquito and fly control (Rottman 2006). Figure 9: Engineers unpack and test a Mitey-Mite blower (USAES 2003). In 1969, the US Army Limited War Laboratory published a report on chemical weapons that included a section on foggers and agents for use in them, naming the General Ordinance Equipment Corporation and Federal Laboratories models that were already in production and a propsed development of a formalized truck-based fogger (Samuels, Egner, and Campbell 1969): Figure 10: Existing and proposed fogging devices (Samuels, Egner, and Campbell 1969). "],["international-melting-pot.html", "International Melting Pot", " International Melting Pot Other countries explicitly supported the US colonization in Vietnam, providing a pathway for the fogger to be rapidly picked up by the armed forces of other nations. By 1966 the Australian Tunnel Rats were particularly fond of fogging tunnels with acetylene (MacGregor 1966a, 1966b). Figure 11: Double Acetylene Generator and a Mighty Mite Air Blower Used to Blow Fumes into Viet Cong Tunnels (MacGregor 1966a) Figure 12: Mighty Mite Machine Used to Contaminate Viet Cong Tunnel Systems with Acetylene (MacGregor 1966b) As expected, the fogger quickly made it to Australian police departments, although with a decidedly negative response from the news media, who called it highly controversial admist a Sydney Police spending scandal (P. Allen 1972). Unnamed Australian arms experts who spoke on background said there was no application for the fogger in the country (P. Allen 1972), although that hasnt stopped its use elsewhere. "],["TheReturn.html", "Domestic Applications", " Domestic Applications As to be expected following the basic trajectory of an Imperial Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976), the repressive technique (thermal fogging) developed by an imperialist country (USA) to control colonial territories (Vietnam) was brought home by the imperialist nation to use on its own people (Graham 2013). Indeed, it took just three years from initial deployment in Vietnam on October 8 1965 to first application in the United States to gas Black racial justice protesters in Miami, Florida on August 8th, 1968 during the Liberty City Riots (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018). In alignment with the general Imperial Circuit of Tear Gas (Schrader 2019) between the US and Vietnam, the return of the fogger was aided significantly by the weapons industry, militarization of US police forces, transition of veterans to law enforcement upon returning home, and substantial propaganda in specialized and generalized outlets. "],["manufacturers.html", "Manufacturers", " Manufacturers American companies quickly jumped at the opportunity to refine the bulky, complicated Mitey Mite and sell thermal foggers to the military and domestic police departments. As early as 1969, The International Association of Chiefs of Police included a detailed section on thermal fogging and available models in their Chemical Agents Manual (Crockett 1969), providing prime trade-focused marketing. Indeed, both Federal Laboratories and General Ordnance Equipment Corporation models were included. Sears Roebuck The original Mighty Mite that established the fogger as a method of chemical dispersal was manufactured by Sears, Roebuck, and Co. for insecticide application (Applegate 1969). Figure 13: M-106 Mity Mite Thermal Fogger, as promoted to law enforcement in Applegate (1969). The bulkiness of the Mity Mite backpack proved to be a hindrance in mobile application, however, and while chemical weapons corporations began their fogger lines with hand-held models using 2-cycle engines, there was a push to produce a more streamlined and specialized tool for fogging chemical weapons at civilians (Applegate 1969, 1970). Figure 14: Hand-held two-cycle thermal fogger (Crockett 1969). Sears does not appear to have entered The Mity Mite into the law enforcement market, perhaps due to the companys existing legacy branding, and the model never established itself in the domestic market. Federal Laboratories Federal Laboratories, one of the major US manufacturers of chemical weapons starting after World War I, developed a hand-held 2-cycle thermal fogger that did not need a backpack or hoses: Figure 15: The Federal Laboratories Federal Fogger 298 (Federal Laboratories 1980). Figure 16: Officer demonstrating the Federal Laboratories 298 (Applegate 1992). General Ordnance Equipment Corporation The General Ordnance Equipment Corporation (GOEC), who invented and trademarked Chemical Mace earlier in the decade, had been bought-out by Smith and Wesson by the late 1960s when the fogger market opened up (Gross 2014). Alan Litman, the brains behind GOEC, retained leadership of chemical weapons development after the buy-out, however (Gross 2014), and he must have seen an opportunity, as GOEC began selling hand-held thermal foggers in July 1968 (Applegate 1969). They named their units Pepper Fog generators, a nod to their apparent ability to pepper the recipient with more concentrated bursts of fog if desired, compared to the steady stream output from the Mity Mite (Applegate 1969), and applied for a trademark on the phrase in October of the same year (USTPO 2018). By the end of August 1969, GOEC (and thus Smith and Wesson) had received the trademark on Pepper Fog, which they (and subsequent owners) retained until it expired in 1991 (USTPO 2018). While GOEC did develop and sell a stationary 2-cycle model for vehicle mounting, it was their hand-held pulse-jet model that took the market by storm (Crockett 1969). Figure 17: General Ordnance Equipment Corporation thermal fogger (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969b), as shown in Applegate (1969). They immediately began a heavy marketing campaign for their new invention, taking out full-page ads in police magazines (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969a, 1969c, 1970): Figure 18: GOEC advertisement (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969a). They also leveraged the connection between local law enforcement and the press to generate free marketing with an international reach. It is perhaps no surprise then that virtually all of the foggers photographed being used in the US prior to 2020 are GOEC models. Defense Technology The corporate descendent of both GOEC and Federal Labs and current owner of the legacy branding (Safariland subsidiary Defense Technology) continues to sell items under a Pepper Fog line, including a pepper fog generator that utilizes the same pulse-jet generation technique (Safariland, LLC 2020a): Figure 19: Product image for thermal fogger (Safariland, LLC 2020b). This has supplanted the models produced by the corporate ancestors to Defense Technology, which were bulkier and considerably heavier (Samuels, Egner, and Campbell 1969). "],["rex-applegate.html", "Rex Applegate", " Rex Applegate A major figure in the translation of military riot suppression tactics to domestic law enforcement in the 1960s and 1970s was a former US Army Lt. Colonel named Rex Applegate. Applegate took a commission as a second leuitenant, but had a lung ailment kept him from serving in combat in World War II and so was assigned to Military Police Company before being tapped by Col. William Donovan to build and run the School for Spies and Assassins in the Office of Strategic Services (Goldstein 1998). Larger than life, Rex even served as bodyguard to President Franklin Roosevelt, before retiring and moving to Mexico at the end of World War II to consult with Central and South American governments on riot control (Goldstein 1998). Applegate returned to the US in the 1960s during the civil rights and anti-war protest era and began proselytizing the good word of the thermal fogger (Applegate 1969, 1970). Indeed, Rex published what can only be described as a long-form written sales pitch for the GOEC Pepper Fog thermal fogger in the highly circulated Guns magazine in 1970 (Applegate 1970). Figure 20: Demonstration of a pepper fogger (Applegate 1970) "],["Propa.html", "News Media Propaganda", " News Media Propaganda Alongside the more overtly pro-police-use-of-chemical-weapons propaganda of Rex Applegate were other, perhaps more subtle forms of pro-fogger propaganda (Macomber 1970). Newspapers around the country were more than happy to print articles that promoted the new arsenals police departments were building (LaPrade 1970), complete with product demo photos. Figure 21: Amarillo Texas Police Sergent Jerry Austin with a thermal fogger and shotgun (Vance 1970). Amarillos 1970 population was 127,010 (USCB 1971). Figure 22: Richland County (Ohio) Sheriffs Captain Robert Dysart demonstrating a thermal fogger to a crowd of >200 people (Aman 1970). Richland Countys 1970 population was 129,997 (USCB 1971). General Ordnance Equipment Corporations Pepper Fog model seems to have been the favorite, at least amongst the departments showing off their new cool toys for photographs. Figure 23: A McHenry County (Illinois) Sheriffs officer fogs some grass in a rural landscape during a training and press demo day (Wayne Gaylord 1971; The McHenry Plaindealer 1971). McHenry Countys 1970 population was 111,555 (USCB 1971). Figure 24: Scott County (Iowa) deputy sheriff Jim Lewis, left, holds a new grenade launcher and a riot gun while Sheriff William Strout displays a pepper fogger and gas mask (Winter 1970). Scott Countys 1970 population was 142,687 (USCB 1971). Gary Wills Pulitzer Prize-winning Garry Wills (who at the time was considerably more conservative than he came to be later) penned an op-ed that ran in (at least) The Herald Statesman (Yonkers, New York) (Wills 1971a), The Daily Item (Port Chester, New York) (Wills 1971b), The Charlotte News (Charlotte, North Carolina) (Wills 1971c), and The Philadelphia Inquirer (Wills 1971d) in April 1971 in which he basically tells all the cry babies (pun intended) to suck it up because he would not be afraid to undergo such experiences [as being pepper fogged] again (Wills 1971a). Notably, he touts the leading belief at the time that somehow thermal fogging is a safe immobilizer of individuals (Wills 1971a), despite the weapon not being demonstrably safer than gas grenades and not only not immobilizing but explicitly designed to mobilize immobile resisters. Wills interestingly deems chemical weapons as safer than dogs, which get out of control, bite bystanders (and even other cops) as well as the bad guys (Wills 1971a), despite their being indiscriminate to the point of impacting bystanders, police officers, etc.. He concludes his piece by calling tear gas humane in foreign wars [and] domestic encounters (Wills 1971a), speaking clearly to the return of the trip of the classically defined Imperial Boomerang (Césaire 1950; Arendt 1951; Foucault 1976). "],["The1968Conventions.html", "The 1968 Conventions", " The 1968 Conventions Deployment of chemical weapons on United States civilians by domestic law enforcement began in earnest in the late 1960s during the height of anti-war and civil rights protests, kicked off in particular by the 1968 Republican (Miami, Florida) and Democratic (Chicago, IL) National Conventions (McArdle 2018; Taylor and Morris 2018). As a result of a heavy propaganda and branding campaign, the thermal fogger was just becoming a mainstay of early police chemical weapons arsenals. Importantly, by the summer of 1968, the Florida Highway Patrol, Chicago Police Department, and California State Police all had purchased foggers. Beyond their legacy as the first domestic fogger deployments, the lingering impact of the 1968 Conventions was felt for years to come. The Kansas City (Missouri) Police Department armed up their chemical weapons cache in advance of the 1976 Republican National Convention, including purchase of fogger fluids (Hudson 1976). "],["MiamiFL1968-08-08.html", "Miami, August 8", " Miami, August 8 The first use of a thermal fogger to deploy chemical weapons in the US that I have been able to uncover was during the Liberty City Riots, which took place in during the 1968 Republican National Convention (RNC) in Miami, Florida (Tschenschlok 1995, 1996; McArdle 2018). A white reporter with the Miami Herald attempted to gain access to rally of concerned Black people that was meant to be only among Black people that was occurring in Liberty City, a Black neighborhood, on August 7th (Tschenschlok 1995, 1996). When the reporter was ejected from the rally, Miami police responded with a large and heavy presence and during the standoff, a white motorist with a Wallace for President bumper sticker attempted to drive through but was met with resistance and drove into another car, and fled the scene on foot (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018). Miami police used chemical weapons the night of the 7th, but the fogger did not make an appearance until the subsequent day. Local, state, and federal officials met with Black organizational representatives the night of the 7th and had agreed to continue discussions the morning of the 8th, but instead sent staffers rather than appear themselves, which effectively ended discussions (Tschenschlok 1995, 1996). Apparently, Miami Police Department was unable to manage the situation and Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) was called in by the city (Tschenschlok 1995). FHP used a truck with multiple foggers (Lorentze 2018), described as essentially a modified version of an insect-control machine that spread a thick fog of tear gas throughout the riot zone (Tschenschlok 1995). FHP used the truck-mounted thermal foggers indiscriminately and caused visible symptoms (gagging, etc.) in all present, including a 5-month old (McArdle 2018). The fog quickly spread into neighborhood homes, forcing residents outside to seek fresh air (Tschenschlok 1995). "],["ChicagoIL1968-08-26.html", "Chicago, August 26 - 29", " Chicago, August 26 - 29 Later that month anti-war protests took place in Chicago, Illinois during the Democratic National Convention, and a massive force of law enforcement (Chicago Police with assistance from over 6,000 National Guard members and 6,000 Army troops (Taylor and Morris 2018)) responded excessively, including with chemical weapons, on network news (Schultz 1969; Karnow 1983; Farber 1988; Langguth 2000). After four days, hundreds had been given medical assistance for exposure to chemical weapons (Taylor and Morris 2018). Although I have yet to find contemporary documentation of fogger use during the convention, an AP report on fogger use in Berkeley the year later states A similar device was used during demonstrations in Chicago during the Democratic convention last summer. - Associated Press (1969b) As such, I consider this a very likely deployment. I am continuing to search for evidence. "],["BerkeleyCA1968-08-31.html", "Berkeley, August 31", " Berkeley, August 31 A demonstration in Berkeley, California was called by the Young Socialist Alliance, Independent Socialist Club, and the Black Panther Party in solidarity with anti-war protesters in Chicago who the police had recently brutalized (United Press International 1968b, 1968d), including use of a pepper fogger (Associated Press 1969b). In response, police brutalized the protesters, and in the process brought out a hand-held pepper fogger, a new police weapon which produced a gas that caused sneezing (United Press International 1968b). Figure 25: Deployment of a thermal fogger by police in Berkeley, CA (United Press International 1968g). Deployment of the thermal fogger was covered in newspapers around the country including Paterson, New Jersey (United Press International 1968b); Hanford, California (United Press International 1968c); Honolulu, Hawaii (United Press International 1968h); St. Louis, Missouri (United Press International 1968f); Franklin, Pennsylvania (United Press International 1968a); Madison, Wisconsin (United Press International 1968d); and El Paso, Texas (United Press International 1968e), a city whose significance was already budding. It is clear from the photograph shared with the United Press International (UPI) copy that the fogger used is a GOEC brand pepper fogger, which hit the market the month prior (USTPO 2018). The GOEC thermal fogger was so new, it would not have a trademarked name (Pepper Fog) for another year (USTPO 2018). Figure 26: Product image for thermal fogger (General Ordnance Equipment Corporation 1969b). "],["coming-soon-to-a-town-near-you.html", "Coming Soon To A Town Near You!", " Coming Soon To A Town Near You! Following the conventions, the fogger quickly became a part of the law enforcement arsenal. US police had a hard time containing their glee when purchasing and testing thermal foggers for use on domestic civilians, as a general media blitz played out across the country through the late 1960s and early 1970s (The McHenry Plaindealer 1971). Illinois In the wake of the 1968 Democratic National Convention, Chicago-area police played an outsized role in promoting the propaganda line. The pepper fogger was touted as being able to empty a house fast by Cook County Illinois Sheriff Joseph Woods (Harris 1969b, 1969c), a definitely off-spec and dangerous use (Nixalite 2009b). The volume of fog emitted was also said to be able to fill Soldier Field (capacity 61,500 fans) in under a minute (Harris 1969c). Regardless, the Chicago-area Sheriff decided they needed three of them (Harris 1969c). The Sheriffs Major in charge of chemical arsenal Anthony Yucevicius noted the foggers psychological effect on recipients, as well saying They make a terrifying noise and probably will have a scare effect on crowds. Harris (1969a). Use expanded among and within states, as by 1972 the Illinois State Police also purchased three foggers, which they trained with in Springfield (Robinson 1972). In news reports, the foggers were described as a cross between a machine gun, a power lawn mower, and a sun lamp. Robinson (1972). Florida Similarly, following the 1968 Republican National Convention, Florida law enforcement took to the fogger (Cain 1968). In Sanford (1970 pop. 17,393; USCB (1971)), the local police department purchased a fogger for use with CN gas, noting that it could shoot fog 20 ft for up to a 15 minute stretch, and so would be effective for controlling large masses (Cain 1968). They had, however, only used it in training and for demoing to the media (Cain 1968). Figure 27: Sanford Police Officer Roy Williams shows off a fogger (Orlando Evening Star 1968). California Eager to not be shown up by the police in Berkeley, by 1970, the Los Angeles Sheriffs Department had already purchased their own fogger for their big artillery to use when other forms of persuasion have failed and started a media campaign (Michals 1970). The department and new state regulations required officers to be trained in chemical weapons use, which was set up through Officer Robert Hawkins (Michals 1970). Figure 28: Los Angeles Sheriffs Department Officer demonstrating a fogger (Copley News Service 1970). National Guard Following the Kent State Massacre, the Ohio National Guard, as well as others around the country began equipping their forces with thermal foggers, using the death of those students as justification for massive purchaing of less lethal options (Bandy 1970). Small Town USA No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; USCB (1971)) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 (Box Elder Agencies 1971). Police Chief Jay Christensen noted that the fogger provides a longer shelf-life than grenades and reportage noted that it emits a continuous stream of smoke, chemical irritants, or whatever solution is fed into it. [emphasis added] Robinson (1972) Use of federal funds to purchase chemical weapons, and specifically foggers, was not limited to one department. Cities, counties, and states across the country used Omnibus Crime Bill money to up their chemical weapons caches, including foggers (Conheim 1972). For example, Oakland County in Michigan (1970 pop. 907,871; USCB (1971)) purchased two pepper foggers for their South County Tactical Mobile Unit with part of their $21,066 in 1970 (Conheim 1972). Oneota New York (1970 pop. 16,030; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1969 during the anti-war demonstrations, although the department bungled its response to protests (Griffin 1973). As came to light during a public probe, Oneota Police Chief Joseph F. DeSalvatore requested a limited amount of training in the budget, and officers were therefore unable to deploy the fogger or other chemical weapons (Griffin 1973). Gaston County North Caolina (1970 pop. 47,322; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs purchased a fogger, which they turned on but not used to dispense agents multiple times by 1970 in their jail system when theres been trouble brewing (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970a). Figure 29: Gaston County Sheriffs Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). Apparently the threat of death by chemical weapons fog is sufficient to scare detained individuals into compliance. Within a few years, however, departments began to realize they had no need for the machines, and began selling them with no use aside from testing (Des Moines Tribune 1975). The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1971 in advance of a motorcycle rally that never happened, and used free advertising in local media in attempts to pawn it (Des Moines Tribune 1975). The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers on occasion in Des Moines (Iowas capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; USCB (1971)) in addition to one instance on the University of Iowas campus (Des Moines Tribune 1975), although I have not located contemporaneous mentions. Crossing to Canada Canadian law enforcement was also quick to jump on the fogger train and the media were just as happy to propagandize their use (Patterson 1976). A convention of US and Canadian police chiefs held in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1976 provided a glimpse into the state of affairs by mid-decade, at which point a supply chain had clearly been developed, although weapons salesmen refused to be named or have their statements linked to employers (Patterson 1976). Figure 30: Sergeant Al Oakley shows off a pepper fogger (MacKenzie 1976). "],["scholastic-endeavors.html", "Scholastic Endeavors", " Scholastic Endeavors Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests, many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons. The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970). Use of fogger-based chemical weapons against students, particularly students of color, was not limited to college campuses, but extended to high and middle schools. "],["university-cities.html", "University Cities", " University Cities Durham Durham North Carolina Police broke up the Allen Building Demonstration taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger (Jolley and Olive 1969; Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b). The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel (Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b). Figure 31: Deployment of a thermal fogger by police on Duke Campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). Figure 32: Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). Berkeley February 21 1969 A year after using the fogger on a protest held in solidarity with the Chicago Protest, police in Berkeley again deployed a fogger to clear demonstrators including striking students from outside a University Regents and Sproul Hall plaza on the University of California campus. Figure 33: Police use a pepper fogger and other chemical weapons to clear a University plaza (Associated Press 1969j). This deployment was covered in papers across the country including the Press-Telegram (Long Beach, California) (Associated Press 1969g), The Jackson Sun (Jackson, Tennessee) (Associated Press 1969c), The Daily Tribune (Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969b), The Sumter Daily Item (Sumter, South Carolina) (Associated Press 1969d), The New Mexican (Santa Fe, New Mexico) (Associated Press 1969e), Janesville Daily Gazette (Janesville, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969h), and Messenger-Inquirer (Owensboro, Kentucky) (Associated Press 1969i). Figure 34: Police engulf a University plaza in chemical fog (Associated Press 1969j). Canadian newspapers detailed the fogger use as well, specifically the Red Deer Advocate Red Deer, Alberta, Canada) (Associated Press 1969f) and The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan) (Associated Press 1969a). February 28 1969 The following week, the police in Berkeley were joined by California National Guard troops to attack strikers, and continued to use the pepper fogger (Associated Press 1969m, 1969n). Figure 35: National guardsmen and police fog UC Berkeley (Associated Press 1969k). Figure 36: View from behind of the police using a pepper fogger on striking students (Associated Press 1969l). May 15 1969 Alameda County sheriffs deployed a pepper fogger on UC Berkeleys campus again during the Peoples Park Riots of 1969 (Los Angeles Times 1969; Hayes 1970). The riot apparently started when the university tried to prevent individuals living on the street from a volunteer-run park they built on a lot owned by the school (United Press International 1970). The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this time fogged neighborhoods from the back of a Jeep: Figure 37: California National Guards Gas Jeep (Rosenberg 1969). Seattle Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with hundreds of unruly youths in the University District on August 14 1969 (Associated Press 1969p). Witnesses recounted that the machine was highly effective, filling 2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute (Associated Press 1969p). College Park On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixons expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park (Washington Area Spark 2013). Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus (Cabe 1970). By later in the day, UMD students had heard about the Ohio National Guard shooting four Kent State students and took up a position in front on and inside the UMD Chapel (Washington Area Spark 2013), which did not stop the chemical weapons barrage or the use of the fogger specifically (Oates 1970) Figure 38: Police fog the University of Maryland (Cabe 1970). Figure 39: Police fog the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970). The Maryland State Police liked the GOEC fogger so much they included it in their Manual on Civil Disturbances as a tool for deploying CS gas (Maryland State Police 1972): Figure 40: Maryland State Polices GOEC pepper fogger (Maryland State Police 1972). Iowa City Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 (Eckholt 1971). The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as unidentified because the Sheriff refused to publicly name the compounds, including to the news media (Eckholt 1971). Minneapolis Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors (Associated Press 1972b). In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger (Associated Press 1972a; Star Tribune 1972). The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) (Star Tribune 1972). Gainesville Similarly to the anti-mine protests in Minneapolis, on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed The Monster which spewed tear gas (Associated Press 1972a). Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first deployed thermal foggers via a truck in 1968 (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018). "],["high-schools.html", "High Schools", " High Schools As soon as they laid their hands on foggers, law enforcement extended their use from universities to high schools, specifically using the weapons against Black youth protesters. I will stop to repeat that again so that we (myself included) can all reflect on this. Law enforcement agents used chemical weapons against Black junior and high school students during the Civil Rights Era, including a weapon (the thermal fogger) developed not even five years prior to gas Vietnamese soldiers and civilians from tunnels. San Gordonio Although undated, this photograph printed in The Delta Democrat-Times (Greenville, Mississippi Thursday) (United Press International 1969a) on November 20, 1969 references a recent use of the fogger on students. Figure 41: Police use a pepper fogger on students at San Gordonio High School (United Press International 1969b). Use of the thermal fogger by police that day seems likely, given their more documented deployment of it on December 3, 1971. On that day, a combination of San Bernardino police, San Bernardino County sheriffs, and California Highway Patrol used tear gas from a pepper fogger to break up a major racial confrontation among students at San Gorgonio High School and across a 20-block area surrounding campus (Yetzer et al. 1971). Lawrence Lawrence, Kansas Police used tear gas, including from a thermal fogger, on April 21st, 1970 against Black high school and junior high students, their parents, and community members (Monhollon 2002). The students had gathered that day after a week-long stand-off with administration in response to their failures to meet their demands regarding Black representation in curriculum, hiring, sports, and awards (Monhollon 2002). Black students had occuppied the principals office on May 13th and prominent members of the office occupation were arrested from the school that day and promptly suspended from school (Monhollon 2002). Racial tensions escalated over the subsequent week flamed by presence and actions of the local Klu Klux Klan and Minutemen, some of whom were also police officers (Monhollon 2002). The night of April 20th, the school board held a meeting where they barred suspended students from participating and did not reinstate them, nor did they address the demands, and there was a mass walkout (Monhollon 2002). The next day, police were ready with heavy chemical weaponry, including the GOEC Pepper Fog fogger: Figure 42: Police bring a GOEC pepper fogger to gas Black high school and junior high students at Lawrence High School (University of Kansas Archives 1970). "],["broadening-application.html", "Broadening Application", " Broadening Application The use of foggers, while not commonly overt, spread throughout the 1970s and 1980s, occasionally making an appearance in news media reports. "],["racial-justice.html", "Racial Justice", " Racial Justice Police are generally more apt to use heavy responses including chemical weapons against Black protesters in general (Morman et al. 2020). It is therefore not surprising to learn that law enforcement use foggers to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protests. Indeed, the first use of the fogger in the United States was during the Liberty City Riots, a police action in response to Black community organizations holding conversation among themselves. Danville IL Foggers have been used in a variety of cities, not just major metropolitan areas. Danville, Illinois (1970 pop. 42,570; (USCB 1971)) Police used a pepper fogger to disperse a crowd of Black protesters that had used picnic tables to barricade a street through their neighborhood on a second night of demonstrations (Associated Press 1969o), August 10th 1969. Rodney King Although mentioned in a few outlets during the 1992 police response to the protests in response to the verdict in the Rodney King case, I have yet to find documentation of foggers being used explicitly during that time (Askren 1992). For example, Riley County (Kansas; 1970 pop. 56,788; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs had a fogger in their arsenal in 1992 according to Director Alvan Johnson (Askren 1992). "],["labor.html", "Labor", " Labor Another common target of police force are labor activists, and so it is not suprising to see the fogger being deployed against strikers at least once in US history. North Kingstown RI, March 22 1982 The Brown and Sharpe company called in local police and Rhode Island State Police officers to help try to break a (at the time) 22-long strike at their factory in North Kingstown, Rhode Island (Associated Press 1982b; Carbone 2017). A North Kingstown officer named TJ Varone deployed tear gas via a pepper fogger on a group of 75 people, primarily workers wives and Brown University students, that was blocking the main entrance to the tool factory (Associated Press 1982b; Carbone 2017). The picketers braved the gas for a considerable amount of time, requiring close-range fogging to finally disperse them (Carbone 2017). Figure 43: Police fog striking workers and their families (Associated Press 1982a). The fogging did not, however, break the strike (Carbone 2017). Newspaper and television coverage of the fogging circled the globe (Carbone 2017). "],["celebrations.html", "Celebrations", " Celebrations On occasion, police forces have used foggers against protests or riots that are more of a celebratory nature but still do not respond to their commands to disperse. 1974 NHRA Nationals Indiana State Police used a pepper fogger and gas grenades on a crowd of 2,000 drag racing fans blocking a highway between the track and campsites at the Hot Rod Associations US Nationals in Clermont IN, September 1 1974 (Associated Press 1974b, 1974a). 1975 New Years Eve New Years Eve 1975 was apparently quite raucous in Florida, as many cities experienced revelry that got out-of-hand enough to elicit police use of force (United Press International 1976a). In Ft. Lauderdale, party-goers pulled down a traffic light and police deployed multiple foggers on a crowd of 2,500 on the beach (United Press International 1976a). Figure 44: Police carrying pepper foggers towards the beach (United Press International 1975a). The mayhem was noteworthy enough to garner publication in the Berkeley Gazette (United Press International 1976b) as well as the Tampa Tribune (United Press International 1976a). "],["trainging-accidents.html", "Trainging Accidents", " Trainging Accidents While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation (Judd 1981). Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshals office when their victim and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains (Judd 1981). Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshals office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training (Judd 1981). Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds (The Courier-Journal 1982), indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use safe smoke. "],["CarceralSystem.html", "The Carceral System", " The Carceral System Like many chemical weapons devices, thermal foggers are used in local, state, and federal carceral systems. Unfortunately most deployments go undocumented or such documents never see the light of day. It seems that the only time we find out about prisoners being fogged is when a serious incident occurs triggering outside investigations and the judicial system. "],["BigMac.html", "Big Mac", " Big Mac In the 1970s, the McAlester (Big Mac) Oklahoma State Penitentiary was the site of considerable resistance and rioting by inmates (The Rag 1975; Winter Soldier 1975). A major tool used by the guards in retaliation was tear gas, which they deployed via shot shells, grenades, and pepper foggers (R. B. Allen 1974a, 1975a, 1975b; Coffey 1975b). Given its use here, it is highly likely that the Oklahoma State Penitentiary system used pepper foggers before (and likely after) (Johnson 1974). The guards regularly isolated the uprisings leaders in the solitary confinement building known as The Rock, sealed the building, and gassed it so thick it lasted for days (R. B. Allen 1974b; The Rag 1975). During the May 20 1974 gassings in response to riots, Black prisoner Robert Forsythe, a 33-year old serving time for a robbery, happened to be in solitary confinement due to being caught with contraband money and was not associated with the uprising directly, and so inexperienced with the effects of gas (Johnson 1974; The Rag 1975; Wilson 1993). Although reports are conflicting on details, guards started fogging and gassing prisoners who were, at most, rattling their doors (Hobbs 1974). The likely reason for the barrage was retaliatory, as it was unjustified according to a veteran guard (Coffey 1975a). During the gassings, a pepper fogger was specifically used in the building and created fumes of gas [that] were awfully heavy, one of the worst Ive ever seen according to veteran corrections officers trial testimony (R. B. Allen 1975b; Coffey 1975a). The gassing lasted for four hours despite yells for help, resulting in serious injuries including burned and blistered skin, eyes swollen shut, and breathing difficulties (Coffey 1975b). That intense fogging and lack of medical attention over the next two days were main factors contributing to Forsythes injuries and death two days later, according to medical experts testimony (R. B. Allen 1974b, 1975a, 1975b). Although the guards involved were indicted by a grand jury and brought to trial, they ultimately were acquitted of all charges (United Press International 1975b, 1975c). "],["union-correctional.html", "Union Correctional", " Union Correctional According to the superintendent, a riot was caused in the Florida State Prisons Union Correctional Institution in Raiford on July 5th, 1981 by 22 prisoners who were intoxicated, and the only way to subdue them was to deploy a thermal fogger (United Press International 1981). As a result of two officers being slightly injured and three inmates being stabbed, an investigation was launched that caused the event to be picked up in the newspapers (United Press International 1981). "],["dade-county.html", "Dade County", " Dade County Dade County Sheriffs used foggers to sweep a field on July 17th 1974 in search of a murder suspect that had eluded K-9 units, helicopters, a plane, and an attempt to flush him out by burning the field (Associated Press and United Press International 1974). The suspect was so well dug in that he could withstand significant gassing that surprised a Sheriffs sergeant who participated in the operation (Associated Press and United Press International 1974). "],["CBP.html", "Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging", " Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging United States Border Patrol (BP) has played an outsized role in policing and corrections within the federal immigration system and abroad both in support of armed services and independently (Miller 2019). Indeed, BP has provided another boomeranging of the Imperial Tetherball that bridges the Vietnam-era and present-day domestic applications via export to foreign governments for use in controling their own populaces. "],["international-trafficking.html", "International Trafficking", " International Trafficking Within a year and a half of the foggers arrival to US domestic police agencies, BP agents were engaging foreign governments independent of the military on chemical weapons deployment including using thermal foggers. During April 25 - May 9 of 1970, Raymond Dee Bond, a Border Patrol agent with decades of experience, sold $15,000 worth of chemical weaponry to the Mexican federal government (Star Tribune 1973). Included in the cache were multiple pepper foggers and formulations (Star Tribune 1973). Bond was caught and charges with weapons trafficking and acting as a foreign agent without notifying the Secretary of State (United Press International 1972). Although indicted by a federal grand jury, Bond was able to escape prosecution by resigning from his position (Star Tribune 1973). Given the extensive reach of Border Patrol into Central and South America fueled in particular by the Drug War (Chepesiuk 1999), it is reasonable to expect that this was not an isolated event. "],["bortac.html", "BORTAC", " BORTAC By 2020, the Border Patrol Tactical Unit (BORTAC) had been established to, among other tasks, provide particularly extreme responses to domestic as well as foreign uprisings (USCBP 2006, 2014, 2018). BORTAC is truly a global domestic law enforcement agency, operating in 28 countries (they were willing to publicly disclose as of 2006; USCBP (2006)), providing a wide range of services (USCBP 2014; Miller 2019). BORTACs specific genesis was focused on riots in federal immigration detention centers (USCBP 2006, 2014), noteworthy given the use of thermal foggers in the United States carceral system. Border Patrol agents from the El Paso unit specifically were deployed to police protests in El Paso in addition to being sent to Portland and other cities like Albuquerque, New Mexico (Borunda 2020). Portland OR The thermal fogger made a very visible return to the public sphere in July of 2020, when US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers brought a bright-green version to Portland, OR during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests (PB2020 Team 2021). Since then, the fogger has been deployed three additional times by CBP in Portland, all at the property Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents on the South Waterfront. July 29 2020 At the beginning of July 2020, then-president Trump deployed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents to protect federal property in Portland, OR (USDHS 2020; Flanigan 2020; Trump 2020). During the final days of the visible presence and response of federal agents in Summer 2020, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) unveiled their thermal fogger (Sal 2020a), which has been identified through photos as an IGEBA TF35 thermal fogger from Nixalite of America Inc. This machine is designed and marketed for bird control, and while training tool for military/law enforcement is listed among its uses (Nixalite 2009a), its safety requirements explicitly state: 19. Do not fog directly against personsDuring operation keep distance of minimum [10 ft]. - (Nixalite 2009b) Figure 45: CBP agent deploying chemical agent via thermal fogger in front of the federal courthouse (Brown 2020). Abolish ICE: Immigration and Customs Enforcement Rental Property While the thermal fogger hasnt been deployed at the federal Courthouse in downtown Portland since July 29 2020, it has been used repeatedly by Department of Homeland Security agents at the private property US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) rents to use as a holding center for deportees in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Simonis 2021) the same building that saw the weeks-long Ocuppy ICE protests in 2018 (Dubois 2018). The first of such deployments occurred during the fall of 2020. Along with cities across the country, Portland hosted many events on October 17th focused around the racial and gender justice (Sal 2020b). In the evening, there was a gathering at Willamette Park in the Southwest part of the city, where organizers passed out balloons detailing harrowing experiences of migrants and immigrants detained by ICE (Sal 2020b). After marching to the ICE rental property, individuals tied the balloons to the gate to the parking garage, and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) agents including Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers deployed massive amounts of chemical weapons, including via a thermal fogger, throughout the neighborhood (Sal 2020b). Figure 46: CBP agent fogging a South Waterfront neighborhood (Lake 2020). Inaugration 2021 The same fogger (or at least the same model) was again brought out at the ICE rental property on January 20th 2021 during the Inauguration Day (J20) Abolish ICE protests in response to an individual spray painting a piece of plywood tacked outside the building (Sal 2021a). The fogged up and down multiple blocks, with visible plumes entering units in the adjacent apartment complexes and covering the playground of an adjacent public school (Sal 2021a; Simonis 2021). Figure 47: CBP officer holding thermal fogger (Staab 2021). That weekend, CBP deployed the fogger again during Abolish ICE protests, this time gassing even more of the neighborhood, including the local public school and veterans-preference housing (Sal 2021b; Simonis 2021). Figure 48: CBP agent holding thermal fogger (Lewis-Rolland 2021a). Figure 49: CBP agent fogging an intersection in the South Waterfront neighborhood (Lewis-Rolland 2021b). "],["Conclusion.html", "Conclusion", " Conclusion Although the use of a thermal fogger by US CBP to deploy chemical weapons on racial justice protesters in Portland in 2020 and 2021 appeared novel to many, the truth is that it is just the most recent chapter in acylical narrative stretching back half a century and spanning the globe. Spawned from the US military occupation of Vietnam, the thermal fogger has always been a tool for suppressing resistance among the populace. Its initial transition to the American homefront was rapid and smooth, with retired military law enforcement eager to deploy them against civil rights and anti-war protesters. As the fogger grew less popular with police and faded from public view in the past few decades, its use was maintained in the carceral system Simultaneously, foggers were peddled by US CBP Agents overseas a second deployment. Agents from the same units within CBP then brought the fogger back home again, for a second return. Throughout all of this, the fogger was used to maim and even kill individuals while targeting the marginalized, many of whom have stories that have not been heard publicly. I hope that through this work, I can call attention to the shared history across generations, spark conversations, and facilitate story telling to illuminate the impacts of the thermal fogger on human people beings. Building on the concept of an Imperial Boomerang, I propose that the trajectory of the thermal fogger can be thought of as an Imperial Tetherball, with multiple depatures and returns. Key questions from my perspective are then: what perpetuates the momentum of the fogger, facilitating it to swing around more than once? what routes exist for subsequent rotations where the fogger could be deployed overseas and then brought home again? Clearly, this topic deserves more theoretical evaluation, as well. While the thermal fogger is still presently in play in Portland, countless other departments around the world have these machines of war sitting in their arsenals, primed and ready. And we still dont even know what comes out of the exhaust nozzle. "],["References.html", "References", " References "]] diff --git a/_book/small-town-usa.html b/_book/small-town-usa.html deleted file mode 100644 index 21d6db4..0000000 --- a/_book/small-town-usa.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,260 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - - Small Town USA | The Thermal Fogger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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    No matter the size of the town, by the early 70s, police wanted in on that sweet sweet fogger action. -The Brigham City (Utah; 1970 pop. 14,007; USCB (1971)) Police Department leveraged federal Omnibus Crime Act money to purchase a variety of weapons to use against protesters in 1971 (Box Elder Agencies 1971).

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    Police Chief Jay Christensen noted that the fogger provides a longer shelf-life than grenades and reportage noted that it

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    emits a continuous stream of smoke, chemical irritants, or whatever solution is fed into it. [emphasis added]

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    — Robinson (1972)

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    Use of federal funds to purchase chemical weapons, and specifically foggers, was not limited to one department. -Cities, counties, and states across the country used Omnibus Crime Bill money to up their chemical weapons caches, including foggers (Conheim 1972). -For example, Oakland County in Michigan (1970 pop. 907,871; USCB (1971)) purchased two pepper foggers for their South County Tactical Mobile Unit with part of their $21,066 in 1970 (Conheim 1972).

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    Oneota New York (1970 pop. 16,030; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1969 during the anti-war demonstrations, although the department bungled its response to protests (Griffin 1973). -As came to light during a public probe, Oneota Police Chief Joseph F. DeSalvatore requested a limited amount of training in the budget, and officers were therefore unable to deploy the fogger or other chemical weapons (Griffin 1973).

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    Gaston County North Caolina (1970 pop. 47,322; USCB (1971)) Sheriffs purchased a fogger, which they turned on but not used to dispense agents multiple times by 1970 in their jail system “when there’s been trouble brewing” (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970a).

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    -Gaston County Sheriff’s Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). -

    -Figure 29: Gaston County Sheriff’s Deputy Anne Huffsteller poses with a thermal fogger (The Gastonian Gazette Sun 1970b). -

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    Apparently the threat of death by chemical weapons fog is sufficient to scare detained individuals into compliance.

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    Within a few years, however, departments began to realize they had no need for the machines, and began selling them with no use aside from testing (Des Moines Tribune 1975). -The Storm Lake Iowa (1970 pop. 8,591; USCB (1971)) purchased a fogger in 1971 in advance of a motorcycle rally that never happened, and used free advertising in local media in attempts to pawn it (Des Moines Tribune 1975). -The article/ad mentions that officers have used foggers “on occasion” in Des Moines (Iowa’s capital; 1970 pop. 201,404; USCB (1971)) in addition to one instance on the University of Iowa’s campus (Des Moines Tribune 1975), although I have not located contemporaneous mentions.

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    The concept behind using a thermal fogger to disperse chemical weapons is known as pulsejet technology, which is indeed a jet propulsion method. -For the purposes of thermal fogging, the chemicals are heated to ~1400 degrees Celsius (C) in a combustion chamber and the fogger uses airflow to push the chemical mixture out a long nozzle resonator that cools the fog to 100-500 C before it is blown out as fog that cools as it hits air.

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    -B/W image drawing with text from an old white paper book. The text says FOG DISSEMINATION at the top then a paragraph with `Fog dissemination devices operate by rapidly vaporizing a high boiling point liquid agent formulation. This is accomplished by injecting the liquid agent into a hot gas flow and allowing the vaporized agent to contact the cooler ambient air where the agent condenses into a fog and ultimately into extremely small agent particles.` In the middle is the drawing with a square on the left with a long rectangle coming out of it to the right with a cloud out the further end of the rectangle. There are bits of text around it, pointing to the box it says `FUEL`, `SPARK`, and `COMBUSTION CHAMBER`. in the middle of the rectange it says `HOT GASES` in the middle of arrows pointing out towards the cloud. Along the rectangle another injection area is noted for `Liquid Agent Injection` Text on the bottom says `FIGURE 4. FOG DISSEMINATION. A liquid chemical agent is vaporized by a hot gas flow and released as a fog cloud`. -

    -Figure 46: Concept drawing from the International Association of Chiefs of Police chemical agents manual (Crockett 1969). -

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    Although the mixture does cool considerably from its peak temperature before being released, the chemicals were heated to such high temperatures that they will thermally decompose, creating a much more toxic mixture of gasses. -Indeed, the thermal cracking temperatures of CN gas (248 C Compton (1987)), CS gas (450 - 550 C; Xue et al. (2015)), Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) gas (< 200 C; Henderson and Henderson (1992)), and Terephthalic Acid (TPA) smoke (445 C; Kimyonok and Ulutürk (2016)) are well below the temperatures achieved in a thermal fogger.

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    As a result, it is impossible for anyone to definitively know what chemicals they are fogging someone with, but it is fair to say the mixture is likely to have considerably higher toxicity than product labels and safety data sheets indicate.

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    Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment

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    While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation (Judd 1981). -On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal’s office when their “victim” and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains (Judd 1981).

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    Trainging Accidents

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    While not an intentional deployment, in at least one documented incident, a pepper fogger used in firefighter training exercises caused severe symptoms and led to an investigation (Judd 1981).

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    Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department

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    On December 15 1981, The Southeast Bullitt Volunteer Fire Department In Kentucky was conducting a smoke training exercise using a pepper fogger on loan from the fire marshal’s office when their “victim” and 16 others (including firefighters) began experiencing coughing fits, headaches, and chest pains (Judd 1981).

    Although Smith and Wesson (the Pepper Fogger manufacturer at the time) claimed this was a one-off incident, the Kentucky State Fire Marshal’s office had received other reports of firefighters becoming sick when using foggers in smoke training (Judd 1981). Residue tests later revealed no unexpected compounds (The Courier-Journal 1982), indicating the toxicity had come from the design-for-use “safe” smoke.

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    Bullitt Volunteer Fire Deptartment

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    Union Correctional

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  • Broadening Application
    • +
  • Racial Justice
  • Labor
  • Celebrations
    • +
  • Trainging Accidents
    • +
  • The Carceral System
    • -
  • Accidents
    • -
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging
    • +
  • Border Patrol: A Second Boomeranging +
    • +
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Chemical Weapons Research Consortium
    • @@ -178,18 +176,157 @@

    -
    -

    University Cities

    -

    Perhaps instigated by the willingness of the California Highway Patrol to use chemical weapons (including thermal foggers) in Berkeley on and around the University of California campus during the 1968 Convention protests, many law enforcement agencies escalated anti-war and racial just protests in University towns during the 1960s and 1970s via chemical weapons.

    -

    The willingness of police to fog literally any place where undergraduates standing up for racial justice and against imperialism were gathering was highlighted in May of 1970 when Maryland State Police deployed chemical weapons via thermal fogger into the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970).

    +
    +

    University Cities

    +
    +

    Durham

    +

    Durham North Carolina Police broke up the “Allen Building Demonstration” taking place February 13 1969 on the campus of Duke University in Durham using a variety of weapons, including a thermal fogger (Jolley and Olive 1969; Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b). +The police reportedly chased protesters across campus with the fogger, including using it inside Duke Chapel (Schreiber et al. 1971a, 1971b).

    +


    + +
    +B/W Image: One person wearing gas mask and helmet, centered, stepping to the right. Person is holding slim white club in left hand and pepper-fogger in right hand. Fogger is pointing forward and a white cloud is surrounding the person to the front, back, and behind. The remaining background is black. +

    +Figure 31: Deployment of a thermal fogger by police on Duke Campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). +

    +
    +


    +


    + +
    +B/W Image: Background has brick building with steps. In front of the building from center to right, a line of 5 police officers facing front and wearing helmets & gas masks holding slim white clubs about a yard long. They are standing with legs apart and clubs in both hands in front of their bodies. On the left 5 officers similarly dressed, facing towards one another. Four slim clubs are visible, and one officer is holding what appears to be a fogger in one arm hanging down at the side. +

    +Figure 32: Police with pepper fogger on Duke campus (Jolley and Olive 1969). +

    +
    +


    +
    +
    +

    Berkeley

    +
    +

    February 21 1969

    +

    A year after using the fogger on a protest held in solidarity with the Chicago Protest, police in Berkeley again deployed a fogger to clear demonstrators including striking students from outside a University Regents and Sproul Hall plaza on the University of California campus.

    +


    + +
    +B/W newspaper clipping. Four people walking towards camera wearing helmets with face shields. Person on the left wearing white shirt and tie has several items hanging from belt. In right hand carrying radio with extended antenna. On right side person dressed in all black standing with a wide stance and holding pepper-fogger at hip height in right hand aimed forward. In center two more people dressed in all black, one with a short stick or club in left hand. Background is mostly cloudy with someone behind white shirt person, holding some sort of stick aloft. Glimpses of additional bodies are visible in the cloudy background. +

    +Figure 33: Police use a pepper fogger and other chemical weapons to clear a University plaza (Associated Press 1969j). +

    +
    +


    +

    This deployment was covered in papers across the country including the Press-Telegram (Long Beach, California) (Associated Press 1969g), The Jackson Sun (Jackson, Tennessee) (Associated Press 1969c), The Daily Tribune (Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969b), The Sumter Daily Item (Sumter, South Carolina) (Associated Press 1969d), The New Mexican (Santa Fe, New Mexico) (Associated Press 1969e), Janesville Daily Gazette (Janesville, Wisconsin) (Associated Press 1969h), and Messenger-Inquirer (Owensboro, Kentucky) (Associated Press 1969i).

    +


    + +
    +B/W newspaper clipping. Rather difficult to make out the people differentially in the background, but there's a large group of folks standing in the back part of the photo, the mid ground is relatively empty but filling with a cloud of white smoke eminating from an area on the left that appears to be an officer holding a thermal fogger. Behind everyone is the student union. +

    +Figure 34: Police engulf a University plaza in chemical fog (Associated Press 1969j). +

    +
    +


    +

    Canadian newspapers detailed the fogger use as well, specifically the Red Deer Advocate Red Deer, Alberta, Canada) (Associated Press 1969f) and The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan) (Associated Press 1969a).

    +
    +
    +

    February 28 1969

    +

    The following week, the police in Berkeley were joined by California National Guard troops to attack strikers, and continued to use the pepper fogger (Associated Press 1969m, 1969n).

    +


    + +
    +Guardsmen with bayonetted rifles and sheriff's deputies with tear and and pepper fogger walking through UC campus: B/W newspaper clipping: Eight people in masks, shields, and tied boots walking from left to right, the one in front wearing a spray fogger strapped on back and holding the hose and nozzle in front. A cloud of fog is spraying from the nozzle. The second person is carrying a bayoneted rifle upright. The others are only partially visible as they are passing behind a tree. On the right ahead of the others an additional helmeted person can be seen turning towards the left. Two slim trees are in the foreground. +

    +Figure 35: National guardsmen and police fog UC Berkeley (Associated Press 1969k). +

    +
    +


    +


    + +
    +Four people walking away from camera, wearing helmets and holsters. Lead person has a fogger on their back and is holding the hose on the right spraying a fog ahead of them. Person on the right is carrying a bayoneted rifle raised above the left shoulder. The four are walking into the fog they’ve produced. There are some small trees to the right. +

    +Figure 36: View from behind of the police using a pepper fogger on striking students (Associated Press 1969l). +

    +
    +


    +
    +
    +

    May 15 1969

    +

    Alameda County sheriffs deployed a pepper fogger on UC Berkeley’s campus again during the “People’s Park Riots” of 1969 (Los Angeles Times 1969; Hayes 1970).

    +

    The riot apparently started when the university tried to prevent individuals living on the street from a volunteer-run park they built on a lot owned by the school (United Press International 1970).

    +

    The Sheriffs were joined by the California National Guard once again, who this time fogged neighborhoods from the back of a Jeep:

    +


    + +
    +B/W photo of An old style open-top army jeep with two National Guard troops in the front and one in the rear, the one in the rear is operating a thermal fogger. They are driving down what appears to be a residential street from right to left. There are houses and cars behind them and no one in sight on the street/sidewalk/etc. +

    +Figure 37: California National Guard’s Gas Jeep (Rosenberg 1969). +

    +
    +
    +
    +
    +

    Seattle

    +

    Seattle Washington police deployed CN and CS gas via a new pepper fogger in their clash with “hundreds of unruly youths in the University District” on August 14 1969 (Associated Press 1969p). +Witnesses recounted that the machine was “highly effective,” filling “2-3 blocks of a street with tear gas in about a minute” (Associated Press 1969p).

    +
    +
    +

    College Park

    +

    On May 4th 1970, students gathered at campuses around the country to protest President Nixon’s expansion of war into Cambodia, inlcuding in at the University of MAryland (UMD) campus in College Park (Washington Area Spark 2013). +Police responded with chemical weapons that did not deter the protest, but rather moved it around the campus (Cabe 1970). +By later in the day, UMD students had heard about the Ohio National Guard shooting four Kent State students and took up a position in front on and inside the UMD Chapel (Washington Area Spark 2013), which did not stop the chemical weapons barrage or the use of the fogger specifically (Oates 1970)

    +


    + +
    +Black and white photo of a college quad with brick facade white column buildingsbehind trees around the left, back, and part of right sides of the frame. Eight or so police officers walking away from the camera wear riot gear. A few in dark, a few in light. One in light near the front is carrying a fogger with a shoulder strap and spraying a big cloud off to the left, obscuring a large portion of the photograph. +

    +Figure 38: Police fog the University of Maryland (Cabe 1970). +

    +
    +


    +


    + +
    +Black and white photo of a college A whole bunch of police officers stand on or in front of a short (3 ft) brick wall surrounding the open field. A road, grass, and sidewalk are on this side of the wall, and a tree is just over it on that side. The open field behind the wall is filled with fog from one or perhaps two individuals fogging the chapel, which is where a large crowd gathers on the steps in the background. The chapel has a brick facade and white columns and a very large spire clock tower. The student protesters are visible on the steps of the chapel holding sigms. +

    +Figure 39: Police fog the University of Maryland Chapel (Cabe 1970). +

    +
    +


    +

    The Maryland State Police liked the GOEC fogger so much they included it in their Manual on Civil Disturbances as a tool for deploying CS gas (Maryland State Police 1972):

    +


    + +
    +Black and white photo of a GOEC Pepper Fog fogger on a white ground with a maryland state police badge and in front of a brick wall. The fogger is in the mid right and points off to the left. +

    +Figure 40: Maryland State Police’s GOEC pepper fogger (Maryland State Police 1972). +

    +
    +


    +
    +
    +

    Iowa City

    +

    Johnson County sheriffs - including two deputies carrying pepper foggers - used chemical weapons against protesters in Iowa City, Iowa IA on May 6 1971 (Eckholt 1971).

    +

    The chemicals deployed smelled like insecticides and were described in print as “unidentified” because the Sheriff refused to publicly name the compounds, including to the news media (Eckholt 1971).

    +
    +
    +

    Minneapolis

    +

    Thousands of anti-war protesters gathered in cities around the US on May 10 1972 to demonstrate against the use of mines in Vietnam harbors (Associated Press 1972b). +In Minneapolis, crowds totalling a thousand protestered gathered on and near the University of Minnesota campus and police responded with chemical weapons deployed via grenades, sprays, a helicopter and a thermal fogger (Associated Press 1972a; Star Tribune 1972).

    +

    The fogger was used to direct the crowd around campus and spread gas over large areas, such as the area known as Scholars Walk (~0.25 mile from Washington Avenue to the Auditorium) (Star Tribune 1972).

    +
    +
    +

    Gainesville

    +

    Similarly to the anti-mine protests in Minneapolis, on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida Highway Patrol deployed a riot vehicle dubbed “The Monster” which “spewed tear gas” (Associated Press 1972a). +Although a fogger is not mentioned specifically, this is the same agency (Florida Highway Patrol) that first deployed thermal foggers via a truck in 1968 (Tschenschlok 1995; Lorentze 2018).

    +
    - - + + @@ -211,7 +348,7 @@

    University Cities

    "size": 2 }, "edit": { -"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/07-universities.Rmd", +"link": "https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger/edit/main/05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd", "text": "Edit" }, "history": { @@ -222,7 +359,7 @@

    University Cities

    "link": null, "text": null }, -"download": ["_main.pdf", "_main.epub"], +"download": ["fogger_book.pdf", "fogger_book.epub"], "toc": { "collapse": "section", "collapsed": true diff --git a/_bookdown.yml b/_bookdown.yml index 4645d36..4e9a16a 100644 --- a/_bookdown.yml +++ b/_bookdown.yml @@ -1,19 +1,15 @@ rmd_files: - "index.Rmd" - - "01-foreword.Rmd" - - "02-introduction.Rmd" - - "03-vietnam.Rmd" - - "04-the_return.Rmd" - - "05-the_conventions.Rmd" - - "06-the_spread.Rmd" - - "07-universities.Rmd" - - "08-high_schools.Rmd" - - "09-racial_justice.Rmd" - - "10-labor.Rmd" - - "11-celebrations.Rmd" - - "12-the_carceral_system.Rmd" - - "13-accidents.Rmd" - - "14-cbp.Rmd" + - "00-preface.Rmd" + - "01-introduction.Rmd" + - "02-vietnam.Rmd" + - "03-return.Rmd" + - "04-conventions.Rmd" + - "05-scholastic_endeavors.Rmd" + - "06-broaden.Rmd" + - "07-the_carceral_system.Rmd" + - "08-cbp.Rmd" + - "09-conclusion.Rmd" - "99-references.Rmd" new_session: yes delete_merged_file: true @@ -24,3 +20,6 @@ language: ui: chapter_name: "Chapter " edit: "Edit" +book_filename: fogger_book +repo: https://github.com/chemicalweaponsresearch/thermal_fogger +output_dir: _book \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/_main.rds b/_main.rds deleted file mode 100644 index b898062..0000000 Binary files a/_main.rds and /dev/null differ diff --git a/_output.yml b/_output.yml index 447993e..e5e22da 100644 --- a/_output.yml +++ b/_output.yml @@ -17,6 +17,9 @@ bookdown::gitbook: text: "Edit" sharing: null +bookdown::html_chapters: + css: [css/style.css, css/toc.css] + bookdown::pdf_book: keep_tex: yes pandoc_args: --top-level-division=chapter diff --git a/book_build.R b/book_build.R index 874f593..8eeb21c 100644 --- a/book_build.R +++ b/book_build.R @@ -7,6 +7,9 @@ bookdown::render_book(input = "index.Rmd", output_format = "bookdown::pdf_book") +qpdf::pdf_combine(input = c("img/cover.pdf", "_book/fogger_book.pdf"), + output = "_book/fogger_book2.pdf") +file.rename(from = "_book/fogger_book2.pdf", to = "_book/fogger_book.pdf") bookdown::render_book(input = "index.Rmd", output_format = "bookdown::epub_book") diff --git a/fogger_book.rds b/fogger_book.rds new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b96ac5 Binary files /dev/null and b/fogger_book.rds differ diff --git a/img/Picture1.png b/img/Picture1.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..927375c Binary files /dev/null and b/img/Picture1.png differ diff --git a/img/cover.docx b/img/cover.docx new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4f9475 Binary files /dev/null and b/img/cover.docx differ diff --git a/img/cover.pdf b/img/cover.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a35d3d8 Binary files /dev/null and b/img/cover.pdf differ diff --git a/img/icon.jpg b/img/icon.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..610ad1c Binary files /dev/null and b/img/icon.jpg differ diff --git a/img/icon.png b/img/icon.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c5df9b Binary files /dev/null and b/img/icon.png differ diff --git a/index.Rmd b/index.Rmd index 340976b..3e3e79f 100644 --- a/index.Rmd +++ b/index.Rmd @@ -18,39 +18,28 @@ documentclass: krantz lof: yes monofontoptions: "Scale=0.7" fontsize: 11pt +classoption: titlepage +favicon: "img/icon.png" --- ```{r index-1, echo=FALSE} is_on_ghactions <- identical(Sys.getenv("GITHUB_ACTIONS"), "true") is_online <- curl::has_internet() -is_html <- knitr::is_html_output() +is_html <- knitr::is_html_output(excludes = c("epub")) is_latex <- knitr::is_latex_output() ``` -```{asis index-2, echo=is_html} +```{asis include = is_html} # {-} - ``` - ```{r cover, out.width = 500, fig.alt = "Cover for the book, which has fogger clouds as background and says The Thermal Fogger An Imperial Thetherball at the top and Dr Juniper L Simonis they/them/theirs in the bottom right. The focal image is a blurred, sketched over, re-rendered, and otherwise edited photo of a US Customs and Border Protection agent in all green and tan camo riot gear holding a thermal fogger in their right hand.", echo = FALSE, include = is_html, fig.align = "center"} - knitr::include_graphics("img/cover.png") ``` -
    - -```{asis index-3, echo=is_html} - -[An archived version of this book is available on Zenodo](https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4850406). - -``` - - -```{r include=FALSE} - # automatically create a bib database for R packages +```{r include = FALSE} - knitr::write_bib(c(.packages(), 'bookdown', 'knitr', 'rmarkdown'), 'packages.bib') +knitr::write_bib(c(.packages(), 'bookdown', 'knitr', 'rmarkdown'), 'packages.bib') ``` \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/latex/before_body.tex b/latex/before_body.tex index c57aa60..0d2d648 100644 --- a/latex/before_body.tex +++ b/latex/before_body.tex @@ -1,3 +1,4 @@ + %\cleardoublepage\newpage\thispagestyle{empty}\null %\cleardoublepage\newpage\thispagestyle{empty}\null diff --git a/latex/preamble.tex b/latex/preamble.tex index 51fa180..5342739 100644 --- a/latex/preamble.tex +++ b/latex/preamble.tex @@ -101,4 +101,6 @@ } \makeatother +\usepackage{pdfpages} + \frontmatter diff --git a/rsconnect/documents/index.Rmd/bookdown.org/simonis/thermal_fogger.dcf b/rsconnect/documents/index.Rmd/bookdown.org/simonis/thermal_fogger.dcf index 8c8570e..9cb500c 100644 --- a/rsconnect/documents/index.Rmd/bookdown.org/simonis/thermal_fogger.dcf +++ b/rsconnect/documents/index.Rmd/bookdown.org/simonis/thermal_fogger.dcf @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ account: simonis server: bookdown.org hostUrl: https://bookdown.org/__api__ appId: 7702 -bundleId: 46924 +bundleId: 47269 url: https://bookdown.org/simonis/thermal_fogger/ -when: 1624859358.14159 -lastSyncTime: 1624859358.14159 +when: 1625382684.42068 +lastSyncTime: 1625382684.42068