1-Data_Collection.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "We just need import requests for the HTTP requests, from bs4 import\n",
    "BeautifulSoup for HTML parsing, and import re, the regular expressions\n",
    "module:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import requests\n",
    "from bs4 import BeautifulSoup\n",
    "\n",
    "import re\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Collecting beautifulsoup4Note: you may need to restart the kernel to use updated packages.\n",
      "\n",
      "  Downloading beautifulsoup4-4.13.3-py3-none-any.whl.metadata (3.8 kB)\n",
      "Collecting soupsieve>1.2 (from beautifulsoup4)\n",
      "  Downloading soupsieve-2.6-py3-none-any.whl.metadata (4.6 kB)\n",
      "Requirement already satisfied: typing-extensions>=4.0.0 in c:\\users\\muhammad.zohaib\\anaconda3\\envs\\py3_11\\lib\\site-packages (from beautifulsoup4) (4.12.2)\n",
      "Downloading beautifulsoup4-4.13.3-py3-none-any.whl (186 kB)\n",
      "Downloading soupsieve-2.6-py3-none-any.whl (36 kB)\n",
      "Installing collected packages: soupsieve, beautifulsoup4\n",
      "Successfully installed beautifulsoup4-4.13.3 soupsieve-2.6\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": []
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "# URLs of the Wikipedia articles\n",
    "urls = [\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_rover\", \n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_program\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_Space_Telescope\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_program\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_(rocket_family)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Horizons\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InSight\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSIRIS-REx\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parker_Solar_Probe\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BepiColombo\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juice_(spacecraft)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Orbiter\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHEOPS_(satellite)\",\n",
    "    \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_(spacecraft)\"\n",
    "]\n",
    "  "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_rover', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_program', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_Space_Telescope', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_program', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_(rocket_family)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Horizons', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InSight', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSIRIS-REx', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parker_Solar_Probe', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BepiColombo', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juice_(spacecraft)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Orbiter', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHEOPS_(satellite)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_(spacecraft)']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(urls)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Preparing the data\n",
    "First, we write a cleaning function. This function removes numerical\n",
    "references such as [1] [2] from a given text string, using regular expressions,\n",
    "and returns the cleaned text:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def clean_text(content):\n",
    " # Remove references that usually appear as [1], [2], etc.\n",
    " content = re.sub(r'\\[\\d+\\]', '', content)\n",
    " return content\n",
    "\n",
    "def fetch_and_clean(url):\n",
    "    # Fetch the content of the URL\n",
    "    response = requests.get(url)\n",
    "    soup = BeautifulSoup(response.content, 'html.parser')\n",
    "\n",
    "    # Find the main content of the article, ignoring side boxes and headers\n",
    "    content = soup.find('div', {'class': 'mw-parser-output'})\n",
    "\n",
    "    # Remove the bibliography section which generally follows a header like \"References\", \"Bibliography\"\n",
    "    for section_title in ['References', 'Bibliography', 'External links', 'See also']:\n",
    "        section = content.find('span', id=section_title)\n",
    "        if section:\n",
    "            # Remove all content from this section to the end of the document\n",
    "            for sib in section.parent.find_next_siblings():\n",
    "                sib.decompose()\n",
    "            section.parent.decompose()\n",
    "\n",
    "    # Extract and clean the text\n",
    "    text = content.get_text(separator=' ', strip=True)\n",
    "    text = clean_text(text)\n",
    "    return text\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Content written to llm.txt\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# File to write the clean text\n",
    "with open('llm.txt', 'w', encoding='utf-8') as file:\n",
    "    for url in urls:\n",
    "        clean_article_text = fetch_and_clean(url)\n",
    "        file.write(clean_article_text + '\\n')\n",
    "\n",
    "print(\"Content written to llm.txt\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Exploration of space, planets, and moons \"Space Exploration\" redirects here. For the company, see SpaceX . For broader coverage of this topic, see Exploration . Buzz Aldrin taking a core sample of the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission Self-portrait of Curiosity rover on Mars 's surface Part of a series on Spaceflight History History of spaceflight Space Race Timeline of spaceflight Space probes Lunar missions Mars missions Applications Communications Earth observation Exploration Espionage Military Navigation Colonization Habitation Exploration Telescopes Tourism Spacecraft Robotic spacecraft Satellite Space probe Cargo spacecraft Crewed spacecraft Apollo Lunar Module Space capsules Space Shuttle Space stations Spaceplanes Vostok Space launch Spaceport Launch pad Expendable and reusable launch vehicles Escape velocity Non-rocket spacelaunch Spaceflight types Sub-orbital Orbital Interplanetary Interstellar Intergalactic List of space organizations Space agencies Space forces Companies Spaceflight portal v t e Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space . [ 1 ] While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes , its physical exploration is conducted both by uncrewed robotic space probes and human spaceflight . Space exploration, like its classical form astronomy , is one of the main sources for space science . While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy , predates reliable recorded history , it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. [ 2 ] The early era of space exploration was driven by a \" Space Race \" between the Soviet Union and the United States . A driving force of the start of space exploration was during the Cold War. After the ability to create nuclear weapons, the narrative of defense/offense left land and the power to control the air the focus. Both the Soviet Union and the U.S. were racing to prove their superiority in technology through exploring space. In fact, the reason NASA was created was as a response to Sputnik I. [ 3 ] The launch of the first human-made object to orbit Earth , the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 , on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight ( Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1 ) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Alexei Leonov ) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station ( Salyut 1 ) in 1971. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program , and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS). With the substantial completion of the ISS [ 4 ] following STS-133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the U.S. remained in flux. The Constellation program aiming for a return to the Moon by 2020 [ 5 ] was judged unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. [ 6 ] Constellation ultimately was replaced with the Artemis Program , of which the first mission occurred in 2022 , with a planned crewed landing to occur with Artemis III . [ 7 ] The rise of the private space industry also began in earnest in the 2010s with the development of private launch vehicles, space capsules and satellite manufacturing. In the 2000s, China initiated a successful crewed spaceflight program while India launched the Chandrayaan programme , while the European Union and Japan have also planned future crewed space missions. The two primary global programs gaining traction in the 2020s are the Chinese-led International Lunar Research Station and the US-led Artemis Program, with its plan to build the Lunar Gateway and the Artemis Base Camp , each having its own set of international partners. History of exploration [ edit ] See also: History of astronomy , Discovery and exploration of the Solar System , Timeline of space exploration , Timeline of first orbital launches by country , and Outer space § Discovery V-2 Rocket in the Peenemünde Museum First telescopes [ edit ] The first telescope is said to have been invented in 1608 in the Netherlands by an eyeglass maker named Hans Lippershey , but their first recorded use in astronomy was by Galileo Galilei in 1609. [ 8 ] In 1668 Isaac Newton built his own reflecting telescope , the first fully functional telescope of this kind, and a landmark for future developments due to its superior features over the previous Galilean telescope . [ 9 ] A string of discoveries in the Solar System (and beyond) followed, then and in the next centuries : the mountains of the Moon , the phases of Venus , the main satellites of Jupiter and Saturn , the rings of Saturn , many comets , the asteroids , the new planets Uranus and Neptune , and many more satellites . The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2 was the first space telescope launched 1968, [ 10 ] but the launching of Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 [ 11 ] set a milestone. As of 1 December 2022, there were 5,284 confirmed exoplanets discovered. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars [ 12 ] and more than 100 billion planets . [ 13 ] There are at least 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] HD1 is the most distant known object from Earth, reported as 33.4 billion light-years away. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] First outer space flights [ edit ] Model of Vostok spacecraft Apollo Command Service Module in lunar orbit MW 18014 was a German V-2 rocket test launch that took place on 20 June 1944, at the Peenemünde Army Research Center in Peenemünde . It was the first human-made object to reach outer space , attaining an apogee of 176 kilometers, [ 22 ] which is well above the Kármán line . [ 23 ] It was a vertical test launch. Although the rocket reached space, it did not reach orbital velocity , and therefore returned to Earth in an impact, becoming the first sub-orbital spaceflight . [ 24 ] In 1949, the Bumper-WAC reached an altitude of 393 kilometres (244 mi), becoming the first human-made object to enter space, according to NASA . [ 25 ] First object in orbit [ edit ] The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet uncrewed Sputnik 1 (\"Satellite 1\") mission on 4 October 1957. The satellite weighed about 83 kg (183 lb), and is believed to have orbited Earth at a height of about 250 km (160 mi). It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40 MHz), which emitted \"beeps\" that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the duration of radio beeps. The results indicated that the satellite was not punctured by a meteoroid . Sputnik 1 was launched by an R-7 rocket. It burned up upon re-entry on 3 January 1958. First human outer space flight [ edit ] The first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1 (\"East 1\"), carrying the 27-year-old Russian cosmonaut , Yuri Gagarin , on 12 April 1961. The spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and 48 minutes. Gagarin's flight resonated around the world; it was a demonstration of the advanced Soviet space program and it opened an entirely new era in space exploration: human spaceflight . First astronomical body space explorations [ edit ] The first artificial object to reach another celestial body was Luna 2 reaching the Moon in 1959. [ 26 ] The first soft landing on another celestial body was performed by Luna 9 landing on the Moon on 3 February 1966. [ 27 ] Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon, entering in a lunar orbit on 3 April 1966. [ 28 ] The first crewed landing on another celestial body was performed by Apollo 11 on 20 July 1969, landing on the Moon. There have been a total of six spacecraft with humans landing on the Moon starting from 1969 to the last human landing in 1972. The first interplanetary flyby was the 1961 Venera 1 flyby of Venus , though the 1962 Mariner 2 was the first flyby of Venus to return data (closest approach 34,773 kilometers). Pioneer 6 was the first satellite to orbit the Sun , launched on 16 December 1965. The other planets were first flown by in 1965 for Mars by Mariner 4 , 1973 for Jupiter by Pioneer 10 , 1974 for Mercury by Mariner 10 , 1979 for Saturn by Pioneer 11 , 1986 for Uranus by Voyager 2 , 1989 for Neptune by Voyager 2 . In 2015, the dwarf planets Ceres and Pluto were orbited by Dawn and passed by New Horizons , respectively. This accounts for flybys of each of the eight planets in the Solar System , the Sun , the Moon , and Ceres and Pluto (two of the five recognized dwarf planets ). The first interplanetary surface mission to return at least limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of Venera 7 , which returned data to Earth for 23 minutes from Venus . In 1975, Venera 9 was the first to return images from the surface of another planet, returning images from Venus. In 1971, the Mars 3 mission achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds. Later, much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over six years of Mars surface operation by Viking 1 from 1975 to 1982 and over two hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by Venera 13 in 1982, the longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission. Venus and Mars are the two planets outside of Earth on which humans have conducted surface missions with uncrewed robotic spacecraft . First space station [ edit ] Salyut 1 was the first space station of any kind, launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1971. The International Space Station (ISS) is currently the largest and oldest of the 2 current fully functional space stations, inhabited continuously since the year 2000. The other, Tiangong space station built by China, is now fully crewed and operational. First interstellar space flight [ edit ] Voyager 1 became the first human-made object to leave the Solar System into interstellar space on 25 August 2012. The probe passed the heliopause at 121 AU to enter interstellar space . [ 29 ] Farthest from Earth [ edit ] The Apollo 13 flight passed the far side of the Moon at an altitude of 254 kilometers (158 miles; 137 nautical miles) above the lunar surface, and 400,171 km (248,655 mi) from Earth, marking the record for the farthest humans have ever traveled from Earth in 1970. As of 9 February 2025 [update] Voyager 1 was at a distance of 166.4 AU (24.89 billion km; 15.47 billion mi) from Earth. [ 30 ] It is the most distant human-made object from Earth. [ 31 ] Targets of exploration [ edit ] Starting in the mid-20th century probes and then human missions were sent into Earth orbit, and then on to the Moon. Also, probes were sent throughout the known Solar System, and into Solar orbit. Uncrewed spacecraft have been sent into orbit around Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury by the 21st century, and the most distance active spacecraft, Voyager 1 and 2 traveled beyond 100 times the Earth-Sun distance. The instruments were enough though that it is thought they have left the Sun's heliosphere, a sort of bubble of particles made in the Galaxy by the Sun's solar wind . The Sun [ edit ] The Sun is a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface. The Sun generates most space weather , which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun, beginning with the Apollo Telescope Mount , have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective. Parker Solar Probe , launched in 2018, will approach the Sun to within 1/9th the orbit of Mercury. Mercury [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Mercury A MESSENGER image from 18,000 km showing a region about 500 km across (2008) Mercury remains the least explored of the Terrestrial planets . As of May 2013, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in March 2011, to further investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b). A third mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2025, BepiColombo is to include two probes . BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the European Space Agency . MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10's flybys . Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v . Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable. Venus [ edit ] Main article: Observations and explorations of Venus Venus was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite one of the most hostile surface environments in the Solar System, has had more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other planet in the Solar System. The first flyby was the 1961 Venera 1 , though the 1962 Mariner 2 was the first flyby to successfully return data. Mariner 2 has been followed by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions using a Venus flyby to provide a gravitational assist en route to other celestial bodies. In 1967, Venera 4 became the first probe to enter and directly examine the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970, Venera 7 became the first successful lander to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface data. Starting in 1975, with the Soviet orbiter Venera 9 , some ten successful orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were able to map the surface of Venus using radar to pierce the obscuring atmosphere. Earth [ edit ] Main article: Earth observation satellite First television image of Earth from space, taken by TIROS-1 (1960) Space exploration has been used as a tool to understand Earth as a celestial object. Orbital missions can provide data for Earth that can be difficult or impossible to obtain from a purely ground-based point of reference. For example, the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1 . These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical. Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space-based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify. Moon [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of the Moon Apollo 16 LEM Orion, the Lunar Roving Vehicle and astronaut John Young (1972) The Moon was the first celestial body to be the object of space exploration. It holds the distinctions of being the first remote celestial object to be flown by, orbited, and landed upon by spacecraft, and the only remote celestial object ever to be visited by humans. In 1959, the Soviets obtained the first images of the far side of the Moon , never previously visible to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the Ranger 4 impactor in 1962. Starting in 1966, the Soviets successfully deployed a number of landers to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moon's surface; just four months later, Surveyor 1 marked the debut of a successful series of U.S. landers. The Soviet uncrewed missions culminated in the Lunokhod program in the early 1970s, which included the first uncrewed rovers and also successfully brought lunar soil samples to Earth for study. This marked the first (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to Earth. Uncrewed exploration of the Moon continues with various nations periodically deploying lunar orbiters. China's Chang'e 4 in 2019 and Chang'e 6 in 2024 achieved the world's first landing and sample return on the far side of the Moon . India's Chandrayaan-3 in 2023 achieved the world's first landing on the lunar south pole region. Crewed exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the Apollo 8 mission that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object was orbited by humans. In 1969, the Apollo 11 mission marked the first time humans set foot upon another world. Crewed exploration of the Moon did not continue for long. The Apollo 17 mission in 1972 marked the sixth landing and the most recent human visit. Artemis II is scheduled to complete a crewed flyby of the Moon in 2025, and Artemis III will perform the first lunar landing since Apollo 17 with it scheduled for launch no earlier than 2026. Robotic missions are still pursued vigorously. Mars [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Mars Surface of Mars by the Spirit rover (2004) The exploration of Mars has been an important part of the space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia), the United States, Europe, Japan and India. Dozens of robotic spacecraft , including orbiters , landers , and rovers , have been launched toward Mars since the 1960s. These missions were aimed at gathering data about current conditions and answering questions about the history of Mars. The questions raised by the scientific community are expected to not only give a better appreciation of the Red Planet but also yield further insight into the past, and possible future, of Earth. The exploration of Mars has come at a considerable financial cost with roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failing before completing their missions, with some failing before they even began. Such a high failure rate can be attributed to the complexity and large number of variables involved in an interplanetary journey, and has led researchers to jokingly speak of The Great Galactic Ghoul [ 32 ] which subsists on a diet of Mars probes. This phenomenon is also informally known as the \" Mars Curse \". [ 33 ] In contrast to overall high failure rates in the exploration of Mars, India has become the first country to achieve success of its maiden attempt. India's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] is one of the least expensive interplanetary missions ever undertaken with an approximate total cost of ₹ 450 Crore ( US$73 million ). [ 37 ] [ 38 ] The first mission to Mars by any Arab country has been taken up by the United Arab Emirates. Called the Emirates Mars Mission , it was launched on 19 July 2020 and went into orbit around Mars on 9 February 2021. The uncrewed exploratory probe was named \"Hope Probe\" and was sent to Mars to study its atmosphere in detail. [ 39 ] Phobos [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Phobos The Russian space mission Fobos-Grunt , which launched on 9 November 2011, experienced a failure leaving it stranded in low Earth orbit . [ 40 ] It was to begin exploration of the Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a \"trans-shipment point\" for spaceships traveling to Mars. [ 41 ] Asteroids [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of the asteroids Asteroid 4 Vesta , imaged by the Dawn spacecraft (2011) Until the advent of space travel , objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery. Several asteroids have now been visited by probes, the first of which was Galileo , which flew past two: 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed by 243 Ida in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileo' s planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost. The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the NEAR Shoemaker probe in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object, 433 Eros . The dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid 4 Vesta , two of the three largest asteroids, were visited by NASA's Dawn spacecraft , launched in 2007. Hayabusa was a robotic spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to return a sample of material from the small near-Earth asteroid 25143 Itokawa to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa was launched on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in mid-September 2005. After arriving at Itokawa, Hayabusa studied the asteroid's shape, spin, topography, color, composition, density, and history. In November 2005, it landed on the asteroid twice to collect samples. The spacecraft returned to Earth on 13 June 2010. Jupiter [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Jupiter Tupan Patera on Jupiter's moon Io The exploration of Jupiter has consisted solely of a number of automated NASA spacecraft visiting the planet since 1973. A large majority of the missions have been \"flybys\", in which detailed observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit; such as in Pioneer and Voyager programs. The Galileo and Juno spacecraft are the only spacecraft to have entered the planet's orbit. As Jupiter is believed to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface, a landing mission is precluded. Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2 km/s, [ 42 ] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. [ 43 ] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration. [ 42 ] Jupiter has 95 known moons , many of which have relatively little known information about them. Saturn [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Saturn Saturn has been explored only through uncrewed spacecraft launched by NASA, including one mission ( Cassini–Huygens ) planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies. These missions consist of flybys in 1979 by Pioneer 11 , in 1980 by Voyager 1 , in 1982 by Voyager 2 and an orbital mission by the Cassini spacecraft, which lasted from 2004 until 2017. Saturn has at least 62 known moons , although the exact number is debatable since Saturn's rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying sizes. The largest of the moons is Titan , which holds the distinction of being the only moon in the Solar System with an atmosphere denser and thicker than that of Earth. Titan holds the distinction of being the only object in the Outer Solar System that has been explored with a lander, the Huygens probe deployed by the Cassini spacecraft. Uranus [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Uranus The exploration of Uranus has been entirely through the Voyager 2 spacecraft, with no other visits currently planned. Given its axial tilt of 97.77°, with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness for long periods, scientists were not sure what to expect at Uranus. The closest approach to Uranus occurred on 24 January 1986. Voyager 2 studied the planet's unique atmosphere and magnetosphere . Voyager 2 also examined its ring system and the moons of Uranus including all five of the previously known moons, while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons. Images of Uranus proved to have a uniform appearance, with no evidence of the dramatic storms or atmospheric banding evident on Jupiter and Saturn. Great effort was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet. The magnetosphere of Uranus, however, proved to be unique, being profoundly affected by the planet's unusual axial tilt. In contrast to the bland appearance of Uranus itself, striking images were obtained of the Moons of Uranus, including evidence that Miranda had been unusually geologically active. Neptune [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of Neptune The exploration of Neptune began with the 25 August 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, the sole visit to the system as of 2025. The possibility of a Neptune Orbiter has been discussed, but no other missions have been given serious thought. Although the extremely uniform appearance of Uranus during Voyager 2 ' s visit in 1986 had led to expectations that Neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena, the spacecraft found that Neptune had obvious banding, visible clouds, auroras , and even a conspicuous anticyclone storm system rivaled in size only by Jupiter's Great Red Spot . Neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in the Solar System, measured as high as 2,100 km/h. [ 44 ] Voyager 2 also examined Neptune's ring and moon system . It discovered 900 complete rings and additional partial ring \"arcs\" around Neptune. In addition to examining Neptune's three previously known moons, Voyager 2 also discovered five previously unknown moons, one of which, Proteus , proved to be the last largest moon in the system. Data from Voyager 2 supported the view that Neptune's largest moon, Triton , is a captured Kuiper belt object. [ 45 ] Pluto [ edit ] Main article: Pluto § Exploration The dwarf planet Pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times) and small mass (making capture into orbit difficult at present). Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturn's moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto. [ 46 ] After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed New Horizons was granted funding from the United States government in 2003. [ 47 ] New Horizons was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter . Its closest approach to Pluto was on 14 July 2015; scientific observations of Pluto began five months prior to closest approach and continued for 16 days after the encounter. Kuiper Belt Objects [ edit ] The New Horizons mission also performed a flyby of the small planetesimal Arrokoth , in the Kuiper belt , in 2019. This was its first extended mission. [ 48 ] Comets [ edit ] Main article: List of missions to comets Comet 103P/Hartley (2010) Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer conducted the first comet fly-by ( 21P/Giacobini-Zinner ) before joining the Halley Armada studying the famous comet. The Deep Impact probe smashed into 9P/Tempel to learn more about its structure and composition and the Stardust mission returned samples of another comet's tail. The Philae lander successfully landed on Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko in 2014 as part of the broader Rosetta mission . Deep space exploration [ edit ] Main article: Deep space exploration This high-resolution image of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. The smallest, reddest galaxies, are some of the most distant galaxies to have been imaged by an optical telescope. Deep space exploration is the branch of astronomy , astronautics and space technology that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. [ 49 ] Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft . Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti-matter , nuclear power and beamed propulsion . [ 50 ] Beamed propulsion, appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available, since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes. [ 51 ] Future of space exploration [ edit ] Main article: Future of space exploration Concept art for a NASA Vision mission Artistic image of a rocket lifting from a Saturn moon Breakthrough Starshot [ edit ] Main article: Breakthrough Starshot Breakthrough Starshot is a research and engineering project by the Breakthrough Initiatives to develop a proof-of-concept fleet of light sail spacecraft named StarChip , [ 52 ] to be capable of making the journey to the Alpha Centauri star system 4.37 light-years away. It was founded in 2016 by Yuri Milner , Stephen Hawking , and Mark Zuckerberg . [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Asteroids [ edit ] Main article: Exploration of the asteroids An article in the science magazine Nature suggested the use of asteroids as a gateway for space exploration, with the ultimate destination being Mars. In order to make such an approach viable, three requirements need to be fulfilled: first, \"a thorough asteroid survey to find thousands of nearby bodies suitable for astronauts to visit\"; second, \"extending flight duration and distance capability to ever-increasing ranges out to Mars\"; and finally, \"developing better robotic vehicles and tools to enable astronauts to explore an asteroid regardless of its size, shape or spin\". Furthermore, using asteroids would provide astronauts with protection from galactic cosmic rays, with mission crews being able to land on them without great risk to radiation exposure. Artemis program [ edit ] Main article: Artemis program The Artemis program is an ongoing crewed spaceflight program carried out by NASA , U.S. commercial spaceflight companies , and international partners such as ESA , [ 55 ] with the goal of landing \"the first woman and the next man\" on the Moon, specifically at the lunar south pole region. Artemis would be the next step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to Mars . In 2017, the lunar campaign was authorized by Space Policy Directive 1 , using various ongoing spacecraft programs such as Orion , the Lunar Gateway , Commercial Lunar Payload Services , and adding an undeveloped crewed lander. The Space Launch System will serve as the primary launch vehicle for Orion, while commercial launch vehicles are planned for use to launch other elements of the campaign. [ 56 ] NASA requested $1.6 billion in additional funding for Artemis for fiscal year 2020, [ 57 ] while the U.S. Senate Appropriations Committee requested from NASA a five-year budget profile [ 58 ] which is needed for evaluation and approval by the U.S. Congress . [ 59 ] [ 60 ] As of 2024, the first Artemis mission was launched in 2022 with the second mission, a crewed lunar flyby planned for 2025. [ 61 ] Construction on the Lunar Gateway is underway with initial capabilities set for the 2025–2027 timeframe. [ 62 ] The first CLPS lander landed in 2024, marking the first US spacecraft to land since Apollo 17 . [ 63 ] Rationales [ edit ] Main article: Space advocacy Astronaut Buzz Aldrin had a personal Communion service when he first arrived on the surface of the Moon . The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos , is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as NASA spin-offs ), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. [ 64 ] It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate substantial revenue. [ 65 ] In addition, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering. [ 66 ] Space exploration also gives scientists the ability to perform experiments in other settings and expand humanity's knowledge. [ 67 ] Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to humankind and that staying on Earth will eventually lead to extinction . Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen Hawking , renowned British theoretical physicist, said, \"I don't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I'm an optimist. We will reach out to the stars.\" [ 68 ] Author Arthur C. Clarke (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non-fiction semi-technical monograph Interplanetary Flight . [ 69 ] He argued that humanity's choice is essentially between expansion off Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation and death. These motivations could be attributed to one of the first rocket scientists in NASA, Wernher von Braun , and his vision of humans moving beyond Earth. The basis of this plan was to: Develop multi-stage rockets capable of placing satellites, animals, and humans in space. Development of large, winged reusable spacecraft capable of carrying humans and equipment into Earth orbit in a way that made space access routine and cost-effective. Construction of a large, permanently occupied space station to be used as a platform both to observe Earth and from which to launch deep space expeditions. Launching the first human flights around the Moon, leading to the first landings of humans on the Moon, with the intent of exploring that body and establishing permanent lunar bases. Assembly and fueling of spaceships in Earth orbit for the purpose of sending humans to Mars with the intent of eventually colonizing that planet. [ 70 ] Known as the Von Braun Paradigm, the plan was formulated to lead humans in the exploration of space. Von Braun's vision of human space exploration served as the model for efforts in space exploration well into the twenty-first century, with NASA incorporating this approach into the majority of their projects. [ 70 ] The steps were followed out of order, as seen by the Apollo program reaching the moon before the space shuttle program was started, which in turn was used to complete the International Space Station. Von Braun's Paradigm formed NASA's drive for human exploration, in the hopes that humans discover the far reaches of the universe. NASA has produced a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space exploration. [ 71 ] Overall, the U.S. public remains largely supportive of both crewed and uncrewed space exploration. According to an Associated Press Poll conducted in July 2003, 71% of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is \"a good investment\", compared to 21% who did not. [ 72 ] Human nature [ edit ] Space advocacy and space policy [ 73 ] regularly invokes exploration as a human nature . [ 74 ] Topics [ edit ] Main articles: Space science and Human presence in space Spaceflight [ edit ] Main articles: Spaceflight and Astronautics Delta-v's in km/s for various orbital maneuvers Spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space. Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications . Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories , reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites . A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch , which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics . Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry , and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. Satellites [ edit ] Main article: Satellite Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Commercialization of space [ edit ] Main article: Commercialization of space The commercialization of space first started out with the launching of private satellites by NASA or other space agencies. Current examples of the commercial satellite use of space include satellite navigation systems , satellite television, satellite communications (such as internet services) and satellite radio . The next step of commercialization of space was seen as human spaceflight. Flying humans safely to and from space had become routine to NASA and Russia. [ 75 ] Reusable spacecraft were an entirely new engineering challenge, something only seen in novels and films like Star Trek and War of the Worlds. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin supported the use of making a reusable vehicle like the space shuttle. Aldrin held that reusable spacecraft were the key in making space travel affordable, stating that the use of \"passenger space travel is a huge potential market big enough to justify the creation of reusable launch vehicles\". [ 76 ] Space tourism is a next step in the use of reusable vehicles in the commercialization of space. The purpose of this form of space travel is personal pleasure. Private spaceflight companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin , and commercial space stations such as the Axiom Space and the Bigelow Commercial Space Station have changed the cost and overall landscape of space exploration, and are expected to continue to do so in the near future. Alien life [ edit ] Main articles: Astrobiology and Extraterrestrial life Astrobiology is the interdisciplinary study of life in the universe, combining aspects of astronomy , biology and geology. [ 77 ] It is focused primarily on the study of the origin , distribution and evolution of life. It is also known as exobiology (from Greek: έξω, exo , \"outside\"). [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] The term \"Xenobiology\" has been used as well, but this is technically incorrect because its terminology means \"biology of the foreigners\". [ 81 ] Astrobiologists must also consider the possibility of life that is chemically entirely distinct from any life found on Earth. [ 82 ] In the Solar System, some of the prime locations for current or past astrobiology are on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan. [ 83 ] Human spaceflight and habitation [ edit ] Main articles: Human spaceflight , Bioastronautics , Effect of spaceflight on the human body , Space medicine , Space architecture , Space station , Space habitat (facility) , and Space habitat (settlement) Crew quarters on Zvezda , the base ISS crew module To date, the longest human occupation of space is the International Space Station which has been in continuous use for 24 years, 99 days. Valeri Polyakov 's record single spaceflight of almost 438 days aboard the Mir space station has not been surpassed. The health effects of space have been well documented through years of research conducted in the field of aerospace medicine . Analog environments similar to those experienced in space travel (like deep sea submarines), have been used in this research to further explore the relationship between isolation and extreme environments. [ 84 ] It is imperative that the health of the crew be maintained as any deviation from baseline may compromise the integrity of the mission as well as the safety of the crew, hence the astronauts must endure rigorous medical screenings and tests prior to embarking on any missions. However, it does not take long for the environmental dynamics of spaceflight to commence its toll on the human body; for example, space motion sickness (SMS) – a condition which affects the neurovestibular system and culminates in mild to severe signs and symptoms such as vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, and disorientation – plagues almost all space travelers within their first few days in orbit. [ 84 ] Space travel can also have an impact on the psyche of the crew members as delineated in anecdotal writings composed after their retirement. Space travel can adversely affect the body's natural biological clock ( circadian rhythm ); sleep patterns causing sleep deprivation and fatigue; and social interaction; consequently, residing in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) environment for a prolonged amount of time can result in both mental and physical exhaustion. [ 84 ] Long-term stays in space reveal issues with bone and muscle loss in low gravity, immune system suppression, problems with eyesight, and radiation exposure. The lack of gravity causes fluid to rise upward which can cause pressure to build up in the eye, resulting in vision problems; the loss of bone minerals and densities; cardiovascular deconditioning; and decreased endurance and muscle mass. [ 85 ] Radiation is an insidious health hazard to space travelers as it is invisible and can cause cancer. When above the Earth's magnetic field, spacecraft are no longer protected from the sun's radiation; the danger of radiation is even more potent in deep space. The hazards of radiation can be ameliorated through protective shielding on the spacecraft, alerts, and dosimetry . [ 86 ] Fortunately, with new and rapidly evolving technological advancements, those in Mission Control are able to monitor the health of their astronauts more closely using telemedicine . One may not be able to completely evade the physiological effects of space flight, but those effects can be mitigated. For example, medical systems aboard space vessels such as the International Space Station (ISS) are well equipped and designed to counteract the effects of lack of gravity and weightlessness; on-board treadmills can help prevent muscle loss and reduce the risk of developing premature osteoporosis . [ 84 ] [ 86 ] Additionally, a crew medical officer is appointed for each ISS mission and a flight surgeon is available 24/7 via the ISS Mission Control Center located in Houston, Texas. [ 86 ] Although the interactions are intended to take place in real time, communications between the space and terrestrial crew may become delayed – sometimes by as much as 20 minutes [ 86 ] – as their distance from each other increases when the spacecraft moves further out of low Earth orbit; because of this the crew are trained and need to be prepared to respond to any medical emergencies that may arise on the vessel as the ground crew are hundreds of miles away. Many past and current concepts for the continued exploration and colonization of space focus on a return to the Moon as a \"steppingstone\" to the other planets, especially Mars. At the end of 2006, NASA announced they were planning to build a permanent Moon base with continual presence by 2024. [ 87 ] Beyond the technical factors that could make living in space more widespread, it has been suggested that the lack of private property , the inability or difficulty in establishing property rights in space, has been an impediment to the development of space for human habitation. Since the advent of space technology in the latter half of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky, with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of national territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies has been specifically proscribed by the Outer Space Treaty , which had been, as of 2012 [update] , ratified by all spacefaring nations . [ 88 ] Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, would be the permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth, especially of natural satellites or planets such as the Moon or Mars , using significant amounts of in-situ resource utilization . Human representation and participation [ edit ] See also: Space law Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration. [ 89 ] Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been mostly secured through international space law , declaring space the \" province of all mankind \", understanding spaceflight as its resource, though sharing of space for all humanity is still criticized as imperialist and lacking. [ 89 ] Additionally to international inclusion, the inclusion of women and people of colour has also been lacking. To reach a more inclusive spaceflight, some organizations like the Justspace Alliance [ 89 ] and IAU featured Inclusive Astronomy [ 90 ] have been formed in recent years. Women [ edit ] Main article: Women in space The first woman to go to space was Valentina Tereshkova . She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to join this career. This is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews. [ citation needed ] After the rule changed, Svetlana Savitskaya became the second woman to go to space, she was also from the Soviet Union . Sally Ride became the next woman in space and the first woman to fly to space through the United States program. Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. The first all-female space walk occurred in 2018, including Christina Koch and Jessica Meir . They had both previously participated in space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the Moon is planned for 2026. Despite these developments, women are underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs, and limit the space missions they are able to go on, include: agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, arguing that there may be unresearched additional risks for cancer. [ 91 ] a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts. [ 92 ] Art [ edit ] See also: Space art § Art in space Artistry in and from space ranges from signals, capturing and arranging material like Yuri Gagarin 's selfie in space or the image The Blue Marble , over drawings like the first one in space by cosmonaut and artist Alexei Leonov , music videos like Chris Hadfield's cover of Space Oddity on board the ISS, to permanent installations on celestial bodies like on the Moon . See also [ edit ] Spaceflight portal Main article: Outline of space exploration Discovery and exploration of the Solar System Spacecraft propulsion List of crewed spacecraft List of missions to Mars List of missions to the outer planets List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies List of spaceflight records Robotic space exploration programs [ edit ] Robotic spacecraft Timeline of planetary exploration Landings on other planets Pioneer program Luna program Zond program Venera program Mars probe program Ranger program Mariner program Surveyor program Viking program Voyager program Vega program Phobos program Discovery program Chandrayaan Program Mangalyaan Program Chang'e Program Private Astrobotic Technology Program Living in space [ edit ] Interplanetary contamination Animals in space [ edit ] Animals in space Monkeys in space Russian space dogs Humans in space [ edit ] Astronauts List of human spaceflights List of human spaceflights by program Vostok program Mercury program Voskhod program Gemini program Soyuz program Apollo program Salyut program Skylab Space Shuttle program Mir International Space Station Vision for Space Exploration Aurora Programme Tier One Effect of spaceflight on the human body Space architecture Research station – Facility for scientific research Space observatory – Instrument in space to study astronomical objects Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Space archaeology flexible path destinations set Recent and future developments [ edit ] Commercial astronauts Artemis program Energy development Exploration of Mars Space tourism Private spaceflight Space colonization Interstellar spaceflight Deep space exploration Human outpost Mars to Stay NewSpace NASA lunar outpost concepts Other [ edit ] List of spaceflights Timeline of Solar System exploration List of artificial objects on extra-terrestrial surfaces Space station Space telescope Sample return mission Atmospheric reentry Space and survival List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents Religion in space Militarisation of space French space program Russian explorers U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps Deep-sea exploration Arctic exploration Criticism of space exploration References [ edit ] ^ \"How Space is Explored\" . 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Nature . 485 (7400): 549. Bibcode : 2012Natur.485..549E . doi : 10.1038/485549a . PMID 22660280 . ^ \"Is Space Exploration Worth the Cost? A Freakonomics Quorum\" . Freakonomics . freakonomics.com. 11 January 2008 . Retrieved 27 May 2014 . ^ Zelenyi, L. M.; Korablev, O. I.; Rodionov, D. S.; Novikov, B. S.; Marchenkov, K. I.; Andreev, O. N.; Larionov, E. V. (December 2015). \"Scientific objectives of the scientific equipment of the landing platform of the ExoMars-2018 mission\". Solar System Research . 49 (7): 509– 517. Bibcode : 2015SoSyR..49..509Z . doi : 10.1134/S0038094615070229 . ISSN 0038-0946 . S2CID 124269328 . ^ Highfield, Roger (15 October 2001). \"Colonies in space may be only hope, says Hawking\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 25 January 2004 . Retrieved 5 August 2007 . ^ Clarke, Arthur C. (1950). \"10\". Interplanetary Flight – An Introduction to Astronautics . New York: Harper & Brothers. ^ a b Launius, R. D.; Mccurdy, H. E. (2007). \"Robots and humans in space flight: Technology, evolution, and interplanetary travel\". Technology in Society . 29 (3): 271– 282. doi : 10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.04.007 . ^ \"NASA \"Reach\" Public Service Announcement for Space Exploration\" . NASA. 31 March 2012. ^ \"Origin of Human Life – USA Today/Gallup Poll\" . Pollingreport.com. 3 July 2007 . Retrieved 25 December 2013 . ^ Koren, Marina (17 September 2020). \"No One Should 'Colonize' Space\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved 2 November 2020 . ^ Weibel, Deana L. (12 July 2019). \"Destiny in Space\" . American Anthropological Association. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020 . Retrieved 2 December 2020 . ^ Gregory, Frederick; Garber, S. J. Looking Backward, Looking Forward: Forty Years of U.S. Human Spaceflight, 2002, pp. 73–80. Making Human Spaceflight as Safe as Possible. ^ Aldrin, Buzz; Garber, S. J. Looking Backward, Looking Forward: Forty Years of U.S. Human Spaceflight, 2002. pp. 91–100. Apollo and Beyond. ^ \"NASA Astrobiology\" . Astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 28 September 2015 . Retrieved 24 May 2012 . ^ \"X\" . Aleph.se. 11 March 2000 . Retrieved 24 May 2012 . ^ \"Fears and dreads\" . World Wide Words. 31 May 1997 . Retrieved 24 May 2012 . ^ Atkins, William (27 April 2007). \"Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How?\" . iTWire. Archived from the original on 14 October 2008 . Retrieved 24 May 2012 . ^ \"Astrobiology\" . Biocab.org. Archived from the original on 12 December 2010 . Retrieved 24 May 2012 . ^ Ward, Peter (8 December 2006). \"Launching the Alien Debates\" . Astrobiology Magazine . Archived from the original on 23 October 2020 . Retrieved 25 December 2013 . ^ \"Astrobiology: the quest for extraterrestrial life\" . Spacechronology.com. 29 September 2010. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012 . Retrieved 24 May 2012 . ^ a b c d Doarn, Charles R.; Polk, J. D.; Shepanek, Marc (2019). \"Health challenges including behavioral problems in long-duration spaceflight\" . Neurology India . 67 (8): S190 – S195 . doi : 10.4103/0028-3886.259116 . ISSN 0028-3886 . PMID 31134909 . S2CID 167219863 . ^ Perez, Jason (30 March 2016). \"The Human Body in Space\" . NASA . Retrieved 11 November 2019 . ^ a b c d Mars, Kelli (27 March 2018). \"5 Hazards of Human Spaceflight\" . NASA . Archived from the original on 28 April 2022 . Retrieved 6 October 2019 . ^ \"Global Exploration Strategy and Lunar Architecture\" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. 4 December 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 5 August 2007 . ^ Simberg, Rand (Fall 2012). \"Property Rights in Space\" . The New Atlantis (37): 20– 31. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012 . Retrieved 14 December 2012 . ^ a b c Durrani, Haris (19 July 2019). \"Is Spaceflight Colonialism?\" . The Nation . Retrieved 2 October 2020 . ^ \"Website of the IAU100 Inclusive Astronomy project\" . Archived from the original on 22 December 2021 . Retrieved 8 January 2022 . ^ Kramer, Miriam (27 August 2013). \"Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say\" . Space.com . Purch . Retrieved 7 January 2017 . ^ Sokolowski, Susan L. (5 April 2019). \"Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women's accomplishments\" . The Conversation . Retrieved 10 May 2020 . Further reading [ edit ] Launius, R.D.; et al. (2012). \"Spaceflight: The Development of Science, Surveillance, and Commerce in Space\" . Proceedings of the IEEE . 100 (special centennial issue): 1785– 1818. doi : 10.1109/JPROC.2012.2187143 . An overview of the history of space exploration and predictions for the future. External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to Space exploration . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Space exploration . Library resources about Space exploration Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Building a Spacefaring Civilization , Archived 22 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine Chronology of space exploration, astrobiology, exoplanets and news . Archived 29 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine Space related news Space Exploration Network NASA's website on human space travel NASA's website on space exploration technology . Archived 13 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine \"America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier\", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan The Soviet-Russian Spaceflight's History Photoarchive The 21 Greatest Space Photos Ever . Archived 27 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine – slideshow by Life Magazine \" From Stargazers to Starships \", extensive educational web site and course covering spaceflight, astronomy and related physics We Are The Explorers , NASA Promotional Video ( Press Release . Archived 26 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine ) Recent Advancement in Space technology and satellite technology 2024 . 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Charikloan Chironean Uranian Neptunian Haumean Quaoarian Hypothetical objects Bagby's moon Chiron Coatlicue Counter-Earth Chrysalis Fifth Giant Hyperion Lilith Mercury's moon Neith Nemesis Nibiru Petit's moon Phaeton Planet Nine Planet Ten Planet V Planet X Subsatellites Synestia Theia Themis Tyche Vulcan Vulcanoids Waltemath's moons Exploration ( outline ) Colonization Discovery astronomy historical models timeline Space probes timeline list Human spaceflight space stations list programs Mercury Venus Moon mining Mars Ceres Asteroids mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Small Solar System bodies Comets Damocloids Meteoroids Minor planets names and meanings moons Planetesimal Planetary orbit-crossers Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Trojans Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Near-Earth objects NEAs Asteroid belt Asteroids Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Centaurs Trans-Neptunian objects Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Lists Comets Possible dwarf planets Gravitationally rounded objects Minor planets Natural satellites Solar System models Solar System objects by size by discovery date Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Related Double planet Lagrange point Moonlet Syzygy Tidal locking Outline of the Solar System Solar System portal Astronomy portal Earth sciences portal ‹ The template below ( Earth's location in the Universe ) is being considered for merging with LocationOfEarth-ImageMap. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Local Hole → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow ( → ) may be read as \"within\" or \"part of\". v t e Spaceflight General Astrodynamics History Timeline Space Race Records Accidents and incidents Space launch Space policy Australia China European Space Agency European Union India Japan North Korea South Korea Russia Soviet Union United States Space law Outer Space Treaty Rescue Agreement Space Liability Convention Registration Convention Moon Treaty Space warfare Space command Space force Militarisation of space Private spaceflight Billionaire space race Applications Astronomy Earth observation Archaeology Imagery and mapping Reconnaissance Weather and environment monitoring Communications satellite Internet Radio Telephone Television Satellite navigation Commercial use of space Space launch market competition Space architecture Space exploration Space research Space technology Space weather Human spaceflight General Astronaut commercial Life-support system Animals in space Bioastronautics Space suit Extravehicular activity Overview effect Weightlessness Space toilet Space tourism Space colonization Space diving Programs Vostok Mercury Voskhod Gemini Soyuz Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz Space Shuttle Mir Shuttle–Mir International Space Station Shenzhou Tiangong New Shepard Artemis Health issues Effect of spaceflight on the human body Space adaptation syndrome Health threat from cosmic rays Space psychology Psychological and sociological effects Space and survival Space medicine Space nursing Space sexology Spacecraft Launch vehicle Rocket Space capsule Orbital module Reentry capsule Service module Spaceplane Robotic spacecraft Satellite Space probe Lander Rover Self-replicating spacecraft Space telescope Spacecraft propulsion Rocket engine Electric propulsion Solar sail Gravity assist Destinations Sub-orbital Orbital Geocentric Geosynchronous Interplanetary Interstellar Intergalactic Space launch Direct ascent Escape velocity Expendable and reusable launch systems Launch pad Non-rocket spacelaunch Spaceport Ground segment Flight controller Ground station Pass Mission control center Category Portal v t e Space missions by destination Planets Mercury Venus Mars Outer planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Others The Sun The Moon lunar probes Minor planets Comets Orbiters Extraterrestrial orbiters Mars orbiters Objects in heliocentric orbit Authority control databases : National United States Japan Israel\n",
      "\n",
      "\n",
      "Robotic vehicle for Mars surface exploration This article is about autonomous exploration vehicles. For crewed vehicles on Mars, see Crewed Mars rover . NASA's Curiosity rover, selfie , 2015 A Mars rover is a remote-controlled motor vehicle designed to travel on the surface of Mars . Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers : they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control. They serve a different purpose than orbital spacecraft like Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . A more recent development is the Mars helicopter . As of May 2021 [update] , there have been six successful robotically operated Mars rovers; the first five, managed by the American NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory , were (by date of Mars landing): Sojourner (1997), Spirit (2004–2010), Opportunity (2004–2018), Curiosity (2012–present), and Perseverance (2021–present). The sixth, managed by the China National Space Administration , is Zhurong (2021–2022). On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that then current studies on Mars by Opportunity and Curiosity would be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic , chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms , as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes ) that may have been habitable . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] The search for evidence of habitability , taphonomy (related to fossils ), and organic carbon on Mars is now a primary NASA objective. [ 1 ] [ 6 ] The Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3 , were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; Opportunity , Spirit and Curiosity were on their own. As of November 2023, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit , Opportunity , and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact. On February 18, 2021, Perseverance , the newest American Mars rover, successfully landed.  On May 14, 2021, China's Zhurong became the first non-American rover to successfully operate on Mars. Missions [ edit ] See also: List of missions to Mars Multiple rovers have been dispatched to Mars: Zhurong rover and lander captured by HiRISE from NASA 's MRO on 6 June 2021 Active [ edit ] Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission by NASA, was launched November 26, 2011 [ 7 ] [ 8 ] and landed at the Aeolis Palus plain near Aeolis Mons (informally \"Mount Sharp\") [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] The Curiosity rover is still operational as of 2025. Perseverance is NASA's rover based on the successful Curiosity design. Launched with the Mars 2020 mission on July 30, 2020, it landed on February 18, 2021. [ 16 ] It carried the Mars helicopter Ingenuity attached to its belly. Although Ingenuity 's mission has ended, Perseverance remains operational as of March 2024. Past [ edit ] Sojourner disembarks Mars Pathfinder base station lander on the surface of planet Mars Sojourner rover, Mars Pathfinder , landed successfully on July 4, 1997. Communications were lost on September 27, 1997. Sojourner had traveled a distance of just over 100 meters (330 ft). [ 17 ] Spirit (MER-A), Mars Exploration Rover (MER), launched on June 10, 2003, [ 18 ] and landed on January 4, 2004. Nearly six years after the original mission limit, Spirit had covered a total distance of 7.73 km (4.80 mi) but its wheels became trapped in sand. [ 19 ] The last communication received from the rover was on March 22, 2010, and NASA ceased attempts to re-establish communication on May 25, 2011. [ 20 ] Opportunity (MER-B), Mars Exploration Rover, launched on July 7, 2003 [ 18 ] and landed on January 25, 2004. Opportunity surpassed the previous records for longevity at 5,352 sols (5498 Earth days from landing to mission end; 15 Earth years or 8 Martian years) and covered 45.16 km (28.06 mi). The rover sent its last status on 10 June 2018 when a global 2018 Mars dust storm blocked the sunlight needed to recharge its batteries. [ 21 ] After hundreds of attempts to reactivate the rover, NASA declared the mission complete on February 13, 2019. Zhurong launched with the Tianwen-1 CNSA Mars mission on July 23, 2020, landed on May 14, 2021, in the southern region of Utopia Planitia , and deployed on May 22, 2021, while dropping a remote selfie camera on 1 June 2021. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Designed for a lifespan of 90 sols (93 Earth days), [ 24 ] Zhurong had been active for 347 sols (356.5 days) since its deployment and traveled on Mars's surface for 1,921 m (6,302 ft). [ 25 ] Since 20 May 2022, the rover was deactivated due to approaching sandstorms and Martian winter. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] But the larger-than-expected build-up of dust covering its solar panels prevented it from self-reactivation. On 25 April 2023, the mission designer Zhang Rongqiao announced that the buildup of dust from the last inactivation is greater than planned, indicating the rover could be inactive \"forever\". [ 28 ] Failed [ edit ] Mars 2 , PrOP-M rover, 1971, Mars 2 landing failed, destroying Prop-M with it. The Mars 2 and 3 spacecraft from the Soviet Union had identical 4.5 kilograms (9.9 lb) Prop-M rovers. They were to move on skis while connected to the landers with cables. [ 29 ] Mars 3 , PrOP-M rover, landed successfully on December 2, 1971. 4.5 kilograms (9.9 lb) rover tethered to the Mars 3 lander. Lost when the Mars 3 lander stopped communicating about 110 seconds after landing. [ 29 ] The loss of communication may have been due to the extremely powerful Martian dust storm taking place at the time, or an issue with the Mars 3 orbiter's ability to relay communications. Planned [ edit ] ESA's ExoMars rover Rosalind Franklin was confirmed technically ready for launch in March 2022 and planned to launch in September 2022, but due to the suspension of cooperation with Roscosmos this is delayed until at least 2028. A fast-track study was started to determine alternative launch options. [ 30 ] The Russian Moscow Aviation Institute and the Indian IIT are jointly developing a fixed-wing Mars UAV which as of March 2023 [update] is scheduled for launch in late 2025. [ 31 ] Proposed [ edit ] The JAXA Melos rover was supposed to be launched in 2022. JAXA has not given an update since 2015. NASA Mars Geyser Hopper ISRO has proposed a Mars rover as part of Mars Lander Mission , its second Mars mission in 2030. [ 32 ] Mars Tumbleweed Rover , a spherical wind-propelled rover. The concept was first investigated by NASA in the early 2000s. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Since 2017, Team Tumbleweed has been developing a series of Tumbleweed Rovers. The research organization aims to land a swarm of 90 Tumbleweed rovers on the Martian surface by 2034. [ 35 ] Undeveloped [ edit ] Marsokhod was proposed to be a part of Russian Mars 96 mission. Astrobiology Field Laboratory , proposed in the 2000-2010 period as a follow on to MSL. [ 36 ] Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C), cancelled 2011 [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Mars Surveyor 2001 rover [ 39 ] Cushion-air rovers [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Timeline of rover surface operations [ edit ] Examples of instruments [ edit ] Curiosity's (MSL) rover \"hand\" featuring a suite of instruments on a rotating \"wrist\". Mount Sharp is in the background (September 8, 2012). Opportunity ' s first self-portrait including the camera mast on Mars (February 14−20, 2018 / sols 4998−5004). It was taken with its microscopic imager instrument. Examples of instruments onboard landed rovers include: Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (MPF + MER + MSL) CheMin (MSL) Chemistry and Camera complex (MSL) Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (MSL) Hazcam (MER + MSL + M20) MarsDial (MER + MSL + M20) Materials Adherence Experiment (MPF) MIMOS II (MER) Mini-TES (MER) Mars Hand Lens Imager (MSL) Navcam (MER + MSL + M20+TW1) Pancam (MER) Rock Abrasion Tool (MER) Radiation assessment detector (MSL) Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (MSL) Sample Analysis at Mars (MSL) EDL cameras on Rover (MSL + M20+TW1) Cachecam (M20) Mastcam-Z (M20) MEDA (M20) Microphones (M20+TW1) MOXIE (M20) PIXL (M20) RIMFAX (M20) SHERLOC (M20) SuperCam (M20) Remote Camera (TW1) Mars landing locations [ edit ] ( view • discuss ) Interactive image map of the global topography of Mars , overlaid with the position of Martian rovers and landers . Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations of Martian surface. Clickable image: Clicking on the labels will open a new article. ( Active • Inactive • Planned) (See also: Mars map ; Mars Memorials list ) Beagle 2 Curiosity Deep Space 2 InSight Mars 2 Mars 3 Mars 6 Mars Polar Lander ↓ Opportunity Perseverance Phoenix Rosalind Franklin Schiaparelli EDM Sojourner Spirit Zhurong Viking 1 Viking 2 Mars Landing Sites (December 16, 2020) NASA Mars rover goals [ edit ] Circa the 2010s, NASA had established certain goals for the rover program. NASA distinguishes between \"mission\" objectives and \"science\" objectives. Mission objectives are related to progress in space technology and development processes. Science objectives are met by the instruments during their mission in space. The science instruments are chosen and designed based on the science objectives and goals. The primary goal of the Spirit and Opportunity rovers was to investigate \"the history of water on Mars\". [ 42 ] The four science goals of NASA's long-term Mars Exploration Program are: Determine whether life ever arose on Mars Characterize the climate of Mars Characterize the geology of Mars Prepare for human exploration of Mars [ 43 ] Panorama of Husband Hill taken by the Spirit rover (November 2005) Gallery [ edit ] Mars rovers Sojourner rover on Mars Comparison of wheels: Mars Sojourner rover, MER, MSL Comparison (2008): MER, Sojourner rover, MSL Comparison (2011): MER, Sojourner rover, humans, MSL Opportunity rover later visited its heat shield impact site; it was ejected during the rover's descent and impacted the surface separately. Comparison of the distances travelled by various Mars rovers See also [ edit ] Astrobiology Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers Crewed Mars rover InSight lander List of artificial objects on Mars List of missions to Mars List of rovers on extraterrestrial bodies Mars Exploration Rover Mars-Grunt Mars Pathfinder Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey Moon rover Lunar Roving Vehicle Radiation hardening Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission References [ edit ] ^ a b Grotzinger, John P. (January 24, 2014). \"Introduction to Special Issue - Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars\" . Science . 343 (6169): 386– 387. Bibcode : 2014Sci...343..386G . doi : 10.1126/science.1249944 . PMID 24458635 . ^ \"Special Issue - Table of Contents - Exploring Martian Habitability\" . Science . 343 (6169): 345– 452. January 24, 2014 . Retrieved 24 January 2014 . ^ \"Special Collection - Curiosity - Exploring Martian Habitability\" . Science . January 24, 2014 . Retrieved January 24, 2014 . ^ Grotzinger, J.P.; et al. (January 24, 2014). \"A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars\". Science . 343 (6169): 1242777. Bibcode : 2014Sci...343A.386G . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.455.3973 . doi : 10.1126/science.1242777 . PMID 24324272 . S2CID 52836398 . ^ \"Planetary Scientists Have Created a Map of Mars' Entire Ancient River Systems\" . Universe Today . 2020-12-30 . Retrieved 2020-12-31 . ^ Changela, Hitesh G.; Chatzitheodoridis, Elias; Antunes, Andre; Beaty, David; Bouw, Kristian; Bridges, John C.; Capova, Klara Anna; Cockell, Charles S.; Conley, Catharine A.; Dadachova, Ekaterina; Dallas, Tiffany D. (December 2021). \"Mars: new insights and unresolved questions\" . International Journal of Astrobiology . 20 (6): 394– 426. arXiv : 2112.00596 . Bibcode : 2021IJAsB..20..394C . doi : 10.1017/S1473550421000276 . ISSN 1473-5504 . S2CID 244773061 . ^ \"Mars Science Laboratory Launch\" . 26 November 2011. Archived from the original on 2017-05-20 . Retrieved 2011-11-26 . ^ \"NASA Launches Super-Size Rover to Mars: 'Go, Go!' \" . New York Times . Associated Press. 26 November 2011 . Retrieved 2011-11-26 . ^ USGS (16 May 2012). \"Three New Names Approved for Features on Mars\" . USGS . Archived from the original on 28 July 2012 . Retrieved 28 May 2012 . ^ NASA Staff (27 March 2012). \" 'Mount Sharp' on Mars Compared to Three Big Mountains on Earth\" . NASA . Archived from the original on 7 May 2017 . Retrieved 31 March 2012 . ^ Agle, D. C. (28 March 2012). \" 'Mount Sharp' On Mars Links Geology's Past and Future\" . NASA . Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 31 March 2012 . ^ Staff (29 March 2012). \"NASA's New Mars Rover Will Explore Towering 'Mount Sharp' \" . Space.com . Retrieved 30 March 2012 . ^ Webster, Guy; Brown, Dwayne (22 July 2011). \"NASA's Next Mars Rover To Land At Gale Crater\" . NASA JPL . Archived from the original on 2012-06-07 . Retrieved 2011-07-22 . ^ Chow, Dennis (22 July 2011). \"NASA's Next Mars Rover to Land at Huge Gale Crater\" . Space.com . Retrieved 2011-07-22 . ^ Amos, Jonathan (22 July 2011). \"Mars rover aims for deep crater\" . BBC News . Retrieved 2011-07-22 . ^ \"Nasa's Perseverance rover lands on Mars\" . BBC News . 18 February 2021 . Retrieved 2021-02-18 . ^ \"Sojourner\" . Archived from the original on 2015-03-20. ^ a b \"Mars Exploration\" . 10 August 2012 . Retrieved 2012-08-10 . ^ Boyle, Alan. \"Good moves on Mars\" . MSNBC. Archived from the original on 2010-01-23 . Retrieved 2010-01-22 . ^ \"NASA Concludes Attempts To Contact Mars Rover Spirit\" . NASA. May 24, 2011. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. ^ \"Mars Exploration Rover Mission: All Opportunity Updates\" . mars.nasa.gov . Retrieved 31 October 2018 . ^ Gebhardt, Chris (February 10, 2021). \"China, with Tianwen-1, begins tenure at Mars with successful orbital arrival\" . ^ \"First Chinese Mars probe successfully landed with a rover\" . www.golem.de . ^ Jones, Andrew (30 July 2021). \"China's Zhurong Mars rover scopes out dunes on journey south\" . Space.com . ^ \"China's Mars rover Zhurong is hunkering down for its 1st Red Planet winter\" . Space.com . 11 May 2022. ^ Mallapaty, Smriti (20 January 2023). \"What's happened to China's first Mars rover?\" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-023-00111-3 . PMID 36670252 . S2CID 256056375 . Retrieved 10 February 2023 . ^ Cheung, Rachel (13 March 2023). \"China's Mars Rover Has Not Moved Since September, NASA Images Revealed\" . Vice News . ^ Hart, Robert (25 April 2023). \"China's Mars rover is stuck sleeping after harsh martian winter\" . Forbes . ^ a b \"Mars 2 Lander\" . NASA NSSDC . Retrieved 2008-06-25 . ^ \"Rover ready – next steps for ExoMars\" . www.esa.int . Retrieved 2022-04-23 . ^ \"Russia and India jointly developing Mars UAV\" . March 2023 . Retrieved 3 March 2023 . ^ Neeraj Srivastava; S. Vijayan; Amit Basu Sarbadhikari (2022-09-27), \"Future Exploration of the Inner Solar System: Scope and the Focus Areas\", Planetary Sciences Division (PSDN), Physical Research Laboratory – via ISRO Facebook Panel Discussion, Mars Orbiter Mission National Meet ^ Kimberly W. Land (May 13, 2003). \"A new way to explore the surface of Mars\" . NASA . Retrieved 2011-04-04 . ^ The Tumbleweed Rover is on a Roll. Anna Heiney, KSC NASA. 11 March 2004. ^ \"Our Vision\" . Team Tumbleweed . Retrieved 30 April 2024 . ^ \"NASA - Missions to Mars\" . nasa.gov . October 15, 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-10-15. ^ de Selding, Peter B. (20 April 2011). \"ESA Halts Work on ExoMars Orbiter and Rover\" . Space News . Archived from the original on May 24, 2012 . Retrieved 2011-04-21 . ^ Svitak, Amy (18 April 2011). \"U.S., Europe Plan Single-rover Mars Mission for 2018\" . Space News . Archived from the original on May 24, 2012 . Retrieved 2011-04-21 . ^ \"NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft - Details\" . ^ Arias, Francisco. J (2018). \"CO2-Cushion Vehicle for Mars. An Alternative Locomotion for Exploration Rovers\". 2018 Joint Propulsion Conference . American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi : 10.2514/6.2018-4492 . ISBN 978-1-62410-570-8 . S2CID 240375295 . ^ Arias, Francisco. J (2018). \"A Method of Attaining High Pressurized Vessels in Space, the Moon and With Particular Reference to Mars\". 2018 International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference . American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi : 10.2514/6.2018-4488 . ISBN 978-1-62410-571-5 . S2CID 240369235 . ^ \"Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Overview\" . marsrovers.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2012-08-28 . Retrieved 2008-06-25 . ^ \"Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Science – Looking for signs of past water on Mars\" . marsrovers.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2008-05-22 . Retrieved 2008-06-25 . External links [ edit ] NASA official Mars Rover website Mars Pathfinder Gallery (NASA) Pictures of Mars by Rovers All Rovers on Mars v t e Mars rovers Past missions PrOP-M † Sojourner Mars Pathfinder Spirit and Opportunity Mars Exploration Rover Timeline of Opportunity Timeline of Spirit Zhurong Tianwen-1 Current missions Curiosity Mars Science Laboratory timeline Perseverance Mars 2020 timeline Planned missions Rosalind Franklin ExoMars Related Rover embedded computers Crewed Mars rover Lunar rover Lunar Roving Vehicle List of rovers on extraterrestrial bodies Mars landing Sky crane Good Night Oppy (documentary) Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned. v t e NASA Policy and history History ( creation ) NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Space Task Group (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Ranks and positions Chief Budget NASA research spinoff technologies NASA+ NASA TV NASA Social Launch Services Program Mercury Control Center Manned Space Flight Network Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 Launch Complex 48 Launch Control Center Operations and Checkout Building Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Sample Laboratory Science Mission Directorate Human spaceflight programs Past X-15 ( suborbital ) Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab 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Hera ‡ (2024, flyby in 2025) Europa Clipper ‡ (2024, flyby in 2025) Orbiters 2001 Mars Odyssey Mars Express Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter timeline MAVEN ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter Hope Tianwen-1 orbiter Rovers Curiosity Mars Science Laboratory timeline Perseverance Mars 2020 timeline Past Flybys Mars 1 † Mariner 4 Zond 2 † Mariner 6 and 7 Mars 6 Mars 7 Rosetta ‡ Dawn ‡ Mars Cube One Orbiters Mars 2 Mars 3 Mariner 9 Mars 4 † Mars 5 Viking program Viking 1 Viking 2 Phobos program Phobos 1 † Phobos 2 † Mars Observer † Mars Global Surveyor Nozomi † Mars Climate Orbiter † Mangalyaan Landers Mars 2 † Mars 3 † Mars 6 † Mars 7 † Viking 1 Viking 2 Mars Pathfinder Mars Polar Lander † / Deep Space 2 † Beagle 2 † Phoenix ExoMars Schiaparelli † InSight Tianwen-1 lander Rovers PrOP-M † Sojourner Mars Exploration Rover Spirit timeline Opportunity timeline Zhurong Aircraft Ingenuity helicopter flights Mars 2020 Failed launches Mars 1M No.1 1M No.2 2MV-4 No.1 2MV-3 No.1 Mariner 3 Mars 2M No.521 2M No.522 Mariner 8 Mars 3MS No.170 Mars 96 Fobos-Grunt / Yinghuo-1 Future Planned EscaPADE (2025) Tera-hertz Explorer (TEREX) (mid 2020s) Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) (2026) Mangalyaan-2 (2026) Tianwen-3 (2028) Rosalind Franklin (2028) MBR Explorer ‡ (2028, flyby in 2031) NASA-ESA Mars Sample Return Mars Sample Recovery Helicopters Kazachok Proposed MAGGIE SpaceX Mars program Mars-Grunt Cancelled or not developed Aerial Regional-scale Environmental Survey Astrobiology Field Laboratory Beagle 3 Biological Oxidant and Life Detection DePhine Icebreaker Life Marsokhod Mars 4NM & 5NM Mars 5M (Mars-79) Mars-Aster Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C) Mars Geyser Hopper Mars Exploration Ice Mapper Mars One Mars Micro Orbiter Mars Surveyor Lander Mars Telecommunications Orbiter MELOS rover MetNet NetLander Northern Light Next Mars Orbiter PADME Phootprint Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars (SCIM) Sky-Sailor SpaceX Red Dragon Vesta Voyager Mars Exploration Concepts Flyby Orbiter Landing 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Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned. ‡ indicates use of the planet as a gravity assist en route to another destination. Portals : Solar System Spaceflight\n",
      "\n",
      "\n",
      "Second NASA orbiter mission to Jupiter (2011–Present) Juno Artist's rendering of the Juno spacecraft Names New Frontiers 2 Mission type Jupiter orbiter Operator NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory COSPAR ID 2011-040A SATCAT no. 37773 Website www .nasa .gov /mission _pages /juno /main /index .html (NASA) www .missionjuno .swri .edu (SwRI) Mission duration Planned: 7 years Elapsed: 13 years, 6 months, 1 day Cruise: 4 years, 10 months, 29 days Science phase: 3 years, 6 months and 8 days (in progress; extended until September 2025) Spacecraft properties Manufacturer Lockheed Martin Space Launch mass 3,625 kg (7,992 lb) [ 1 ] Dry mass 1,593 kg (3,512 lb) [ 2 ] Dimensions 20.1 × 4.6 m (66 × 15 ft) [ 2 ] Power 14 kW at Earth, [ 2 ] 435 W at Jupiter [ 1 ] 2 × 55- ampere hour lithium-ion batteries [ 2 ] Start of mission Launch date August 5, 2011, 16:25:00 UTC Rocket Atlas V 551 (AV-029) Launch site Cape Canaveral , SLC-41 Contractor United Launch Alliance Flyby of Earth Closest approach October 9, 2013 Distance 559 km (347 mi) Jupiter orbiter Orbital insertion July 5, 2016, [ 3 ] 8 years, 7 months, 2 days ago Orbits 76 (planned) [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Orbital parameters Perijove altitude 4,200 km (2,600 mi) altitude 75,600 km (47,000 mi) radius Apojove altitude 8.1 × 10 ^ 6 km (5.0 × 10 ^ 6 mi) Inclination 90° (polar orbit) Instruments MWR Microwave Radiometer JIRAM Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper MAG Magnetometer GRAV Gravity Science JADE Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment JEDI Jovian Energetic Particle Detector Instrument Waves Radio and Plasma Wave Sensor UVS Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph Juno mission patch New Frontiers ← New Horizons OSIRIS-REx → Juno in launch configuration Juno is a NASA space probe orbiting the planet Jupiter . It was built by Lockheed Martin and is operated by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . The spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on August 5, 2011 UTC , as part of the New Frontiers program . [ 6 ] Juno entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016, UTC, [ 4 ] [ 7 ] to begin a scientific investigation of the planet. [ 8 ] After completing its mission, Juno was originally planned to be intentionally deorbited into Jupiter's atmosphere, [ 8 ] but has since been approved to continue orbiting until contact is lost with the spacecraft. Juno 's mission is to measure Jupiter's composition, gravitational field , magnetic field , and polar magnetosphere . It will also search for clues about how the planet formed, including whether it has a rocky core, the amount of water present within the deep atmosphere, mass distribution , and its deep winds, which can reach speeds up to 620 km/h (390 mph). [ 9 ] Juno is the second spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, after the nuclear powered Galileo orbiter , which orbited from 1995 to 2003. [ 8 ] Unlike all earlier spacecraft sent to the outer planets, [ 8 ] Juno is powered by solar panels , commonly used by satellites orbiting Earth and working in the inner Solar System , whereas radioisotope thermoelectric generators are commonly used for missions to the outer Solar System and beyond. For Juno , however, the three largest solar panel wings ever deployed on a planetary probe (at the time of launching) play an integral role in stabilizing the spacecraft as well as generating power. [ 10 ] Naming [ edit ] Juno 's name comes from Greek and Roman mythology . The god Jupiter drew a veil of clouds around himself to hide his mischief, and his wife, the goddess Juno , was able to peer through the clouds and reveal Jupiter's true nature. — NASA [ 11 ] A NASA compilation of mission names and acronyms referred to the mission by the backronym Jupiter Near-polar Orbiter . [ 12 ] However the project itself has consistently described it as a name with mythological associations [ 13 ] and not an acronym. The spacecraft's current name is in reference to the Roman goddess Juno . [ 11 ] Juno is sometimes called the New Frontiers 2 as the second mission in the New Frontiers program, [ 14 ] [ 15 ] but is not to be confused with New Horizons 2 , a proposed but unselected New Frontiers mission. Overview [ edit ] Juno 's interplanetary trajectory; tick marks at 30-day intervals. Juno spacecraft trajectory animation Animation of Juno 's trajectory from August 5, 2011 Juno · Earth · Mars · Jupiter Juno was selected on June 9, 2005, as the next New Frontiers mission after New Horizons . [ 16 ] The desire for a Jupiter probe was strong in the years prior to this, but there had not been any approved missions. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] The Discovery Program had passed over the somewhat similar but more limited Interior Structure and Internal Dynamical Evolution of Jupiter (INSIDE Jupiter) proposal, [ 18 ] and the turn-of-the-century era Europa Orbiter was canceled in 2002. [ 17 ] The flagship-level Europa Jupiter System Mission was in the works in the early 2000s, but funding issues resulted in it evolving into ESA's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer . [ 19 ] Juno completed a five-year cruise to Jupiter, arriving on July 5, 2016. [ 7 ] The spacecraft traveled a total distance of roughly 2.8 × 10 ^ 9 km (19 AU; 1.7 × 10 ^ 9 mi) to reach Jupiter. [ 20 ] The spacecraft was designed to orbit Jupiter 37 times over the course of its mission. This was originally planned to take 20 months. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Juno 's trajectory used a gravity assist speed boost from Earth, accomplished by an Earth flyby in October 2013, two years after its launch on August 5, 2011. [ 21 ] The spacecraft performed an orbit insertion burn to slow it enough to allow capture. It was expected to make three 53-day orbits before performing another burn on December 11, 2016, that would bring it into a 14-day polar orbit called the Science Orbit. Because of a suspected problem in Juno 's main engine, the burn scheduled on December 11, 2016, was cancelled and Juno remained in its 53-day orbit until the first Ganymede encounter of its Extended Mission. [ 22 ] This extended mission began with a flyby of Ganymede on June 7, 2021. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Subsequent flybys of Europa and then Io will further decrease the orbital period to 33 days by February 2024. [ 25 ] During the science mission, infrared and microwave instruments will measure the thermal radiation emanating from deep within Jupiter's atmosphere . These observations will complement previous studies of its composition by assessing the abundance and distribution of water, and therefore oxygen. This data will provide insight into Jupiter's origins. Juno will also investigate the convection that drives natural circulation patterns in Jupiter's atmosphere. Other instruments aboard Juno will gather data about its gravitational field and polar magnetosphere . The Juno mission was planned to conclude in February 2018 after completing 37 orbits of Jupiter, but now has been commissioned through 2025 to do a further 42 additional orbits of Jupiter as well as close flybys of Ganymede, Europa and Io. [ 26 ] The probe was then intended to be deorbited and burnt up in Jupiter's outer atmosphere [ 4 ] [ 5 ] to avoid any possibility of impact and biological contamination of one of its moons. [ 27 ] Flight trajectory [ edit ] Juno awaiting its launch in 2011 Launch [ edit ] Juno was launched atop an Atlas V ( 551 configuration ) at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS), Florida on August 5, 2011, 16:25:00 UTC. The Atlas V (AV-029) used a Russian-built RD-180 main engine, powered by kerosene and liquid oxygen . The main engine ignited and underwent checkout then, 3.8 seconds later, the five strap-on solid rocket boosters (SRBs) ignited. Following the SRB burnout, about 93 seconds into the flight, two of the spent boosters fell away from the vehicle, followed 1.5 seconds later by the remaining three. When heating levels had dropped below predetermined limits, the payload fairing that protected Juno during launch and transit through the thickest part of the atmosphere separated, about 3 minutes 24 seconds into the flight. The Atlas V main engine cut off 4 minutes 26 seconds after liftoff. Sixteen seconds later, the Centaur second stage ignited, and it burned for about 6 minutes, putting the satellite into an initial parking orbit . [ 28 ] The vehicle coasted for about 30 minutes, and then the Centaur was reignited for a second firing of 9 minutes, placing the spacecraft on an Earth escape trajectory in a heliocentric orbit . [ 28 ] Prior to separation, the Centaur stage used onboard reaction engines to spin Juno up to 1.4 r.p.m. About 54 minutes after launch, the spacecraft separated from the Centaur and began to extend its solar panels . [ 28 ] Following the full deployment and locking of the solar panels, Juno 's batteries began to recharge. Deployment of the solar panels reduced Juno 's spin rate by two-thirds. The probe is spun to ensure stability during the voyage and so that all instruments on the probe are able to observe Jupiter. [ 27 ] [ 29 ] The voyage to Jupiter took five years, and included two orbital maneuvers in August and September 2012 and a flyby of the Earth on October 9, 2013. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] When it reached the Jovian system , Juno had traveled approximately 19 astronomical units (2.8 billion kilometres). [ 32 ] Atlas V on launch pad Lift-off Launch video Flyby of the Earth [ edit ] South America [ 33 ] as seen by JunoCam on its October 2013 Earth flyby Video of Earth and Moon taken by the Juno spacecraft After traveling for about a year in an elliptical heliocentric orbit, Juno fired its engine twice in 2012 near aphelion (beyond the orbit of Mars ) to change its orbit and return to pass by the Earth at a distance of 559 kilometers in October 2013. [ 30 ] It used Earth's gravity to help slingshot itself toward the Jovian system in a maneuver called a gravity assist . [ 34 ] The spacecraft received a boost in speed of more than 3.9 km/s (8,700 mph), and it was set on a course to Jupiter. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] The flyby was also used as a rehearsal for the Juno science team to test some instruments and practice certain procedures before the arrival at Jupiter. [ 34 ] [ 37 ] Insertion into Jovian orbit [ edit ] Jupiter's gravity accelerated the approaching spacecraft to around 210,000 km/h (130,000 mph). [ 38 ] On July 5, 2016, between 03:18 and 03:53 UTC Earth-received time , an insertion burn lasting 2,102 seconds decelerated Juno by 542 m/s (1,780 ft/s) [ 39 ] and changed its trajectory from a hyperbolic flyby to an elliptical , polar orbit with a period of about 53.5 days. [ 40 ] The spacecraft successfully entered Jovian orbit on July 5, 2016, at 03:53 UTC. [ 3 ] Orbit and environment [ edit ] Juno 's elliptical orbit and the Jovian radiation belts Juno 's highly elliptical initial polar orbit takes it within 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of the planet and out to 8.1 × 10 ^ 6 km (5.0 × 10 ^ 6 mi), far beyond Callisto 's orbit. An eccentricity -reducing burn, called the Period Reduction Maneuver, was planned that would drop the probe into a much shorter 14 day science orbit. [ 41 ] Originally, Juno was expected to complete 37 orbits over 20 months before the end of its mission. Due to problems with helium valves that are important during main engine burns, mission managers announced on February 17, 2017, that Juno would remain in its original 53-day orbit, since the chance of an engine misfire putting the spacecraft into a bad orbit was too high. [ 22 ] Juno completed only 12 science orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending July 2018. [ 42 ] In June 2018, NASA extended the mission through July 2021, as described below. The orbits were carefully planned in order to minimize contact with Jupiter's dense radiation belts , which can damage spacecraft electronics and solar panels, by exploiting a gap in the radiation envelope near the planet, passing through a region of minimal radiation. [ 8 ] [ 43 ] The \" Juno Radiation Vault \", with 1-centimeter-thick titanium walls (three times as thick as the Galileo spacecraft body's), also aids in protecting Juno 's electronics by reducing the incoming radiation by a factor of 800. [ 44 ] Despite the intense radiation, JunoCam and the Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) are expected to endure at least eight orbits, while the Microwave Radiometer (MWR) should endure at least eleven orbits. [ 45 ] Although the flux of electrons close to Jupiter is about ten times as high as it is around Jupiter's moon Europa, [ 46 ] Juno will still receive a lower total dose of radiation in its polar orbit (20 mrad through end of mission) [ 47 ] than the Galileo orbiter received in its equatorial orbit. Galileo 's subsystems were damaged by radiation during its mission, including an LED in its data recording system. [ 48 ] Orbital operations [ edit ] Animation of Juno 's trajectory around Jupiter from June 1, 2016, to October 25, 2025 Juno · Jupiter Ganymede , photographed on 7 June 2021 by Juno during its extended mission The spacecraft completed its first flyby of Jupiter ( perijove 1) on August 26, 2016, and captured the first images of the planet's north pole. [ 49 ] On October 14, 2016, days prior to perijove 2 and the planned Period Reduction Maneuver, telemetry showed that some of Juno 's helium valves were not opening properly. [ 50 ] On October 18, 2016, some 13 hours before its second close approach to Jupiter, Juno entered into safe mode , an operational mode engaged when its onboard computer encounters unexpected conditions. The spacecraft powered down all non-critical systems and reoriented itself to face the Sun to gather the most power. Due to this, no science operations were conducted during perijove 2. [ 51 ] On December 11, 2016, the spacecraft completed perijove 3, with all but one instrument operating and returning data. One instrument, JIRAM, was off pending a flight software update. [ 52 ] Perijove 4 occurred on February 2, 2017, with all instruments operating. [ 22 ] Perijove 5 occurred on March 27, 2017. [ 53 ] Perijove 6 took place on May 19, 2017. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Although the mission's lifetime is inherently limited by radiation exposure, almost all of this dose was planned to be acquired during the perijoves. As of 2017 [update] , the 53.4 day orbit was planned to be maintained through July 2018 for a total of twelve science-gathering perijoves. At the end of this prime mission, the project was planned to go through a science review process by NASA's Planetary Science Division to determine if it will receive funding for an extended mission. [ 22 ] In June 2018, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021. [ 55 ] In January 2021, NASA extended the mission operations to September 2025. [ 56 ] In this phase Juno began to examine Jupiter's inner moons, Ganymede , Europa and Io. A flyby of Ganymede occurred on June 7, 2021, 17:35 UTC , coming within 1,038 km (645 mi), the closest any spacecraft has come to the moon since Galileo in 2000. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 57 ] A flyby of Europa took place on September 29, 2022, at a distance of 352 km (219 mi). [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Juno performed two flybys of Io on December 30, 2023, and February 3, 2024, gathering observational data on volcanic activity. From April 2024, Juno will begin a series of experiments to learn more about Jupiter's interior shape and structure. [ 60 ] Planned deorbit and disintegration [ edit ] NASA originally planned to deorbit the spacecraft into the atmosphere of Jupiter after completing 32 orbits of Jupiter, but has since extended the mission to September 2025. [ 61 ] [ 56 ] The controlled deorbit is intended to eliminate space debris and risks of contamination in accordance with NASA's planetary protection guidelines. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] Team [ edit ] Scott Bolton of the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio , Texas is the principal investigator and is responsible for all aspects of the mission. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California manages the mission and the Lockheed Martin Corporation was responsible for the spacecraft development and construction. The mission is being carried out with the participation of several institutional partners. Coinvestigators include Toby Owen of the University of Hawaii , Andrew Ingersoll of California Institute of Technology , Frances Bagenal of the University of Colorado at Boulder , and Candy Hansen of the Planetary Science Institute . Jack Connerney of the Goddard Space Flight Center served as instrument lead. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Cost [ edit ] Juno was originally proposed at a cost of approximately US$700 million (fiscal year 2003) for a launch in June 2009 (equivalent to US$1159 million in 2023). NASA budgetary restrictions resulted in postponement until August 2011, and a launch on board an Atlas V rocket in the 551 configuration . As of 2019 [update] the mission was projected to cost US$1.46 billion for operations and data analysis through 2022. [ 67 ] Scientific objectives [ edit ] Jupiter imaged using the VISIR instrument on the VLT . These observations will inform the work to be undertaken by Juno . [ 68 ] The Juno spacecraft's suite of science instruments will: [ 69 ] Determine the ratio of oxygen to hydrogen , effectively measuring the abundance of water in Jupiter, which will help distinguish among prevailing theories linking Jupiter's formation to the Solar System. Obtain a better estimate of Jupiter's core mass, which will also help distinguish among prevailing theories linking Jupiter's formation to the Solar System. Precisely map Jupiter's gravitational field to assess the distribution of mass in Jupiter's interior, including properties of its structure and dynamics. Precisely map Jupiter's magnetic field to assess the origin and structure of the field, and the depth at which the planet's magnetic field is created. This experiment will also help scientists understand the fundamental physics of dynamo theory . Map the variation in atmospheric composition, temperature, structure, cloud opacity and dynamics to pressures far greater than 100 bar (10 MPa; 1,500 psi) at all latitudes. Characterize and explore the three-dimensional structure of Jupiter's polar magnetosphere and auroras . [ 69 ] Measure the orbital frame-dragging , known also as Lense–Thirring precession caused by the angular momentum of Jupiter, [ 70 ] [ 71 ] and possibly a new test of general relativity effects connected with the Jovian rotation. [ 72 ] Scientific instruments [ edit ] The Juno mission's scientific objectives are being achieved with a payload of nine instruments on board the spacecraft: [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] Microwave radiometer (MWR) [ edit ] Main article: Microwave Radiometer (Juno) Microwave Radiometer The microwave radiometer comprises six antennas mounted on two of the sides of the body of the probe. They will perform measurements of electromagnetic waves on frequencies in the microwave range: 600 MHz , 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6 and 22 GHz, the only microwave frequencies which are able to pass through the thick Jovian atmosphere. The radiometer will measure the abundance of water and ammonia in the deep layers of the atmosphere up to 200 bar (20 MPa; 2,900 psi) pressure or 500–600 km (310–370 mi) deep. The combination of different wavelengths and the emission angle should make it possible to obtain a temperature profile at various levels of the atmosphere. The data collected will determine how deep the atmospheric circulation is. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] The MWR is designed to function through orbit 11 of Jupiter. [ 80 ] (Principal investigator: Mike Janssen, Jet Propulsion Laboratory ) Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) [ edit ] Main article: Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper The spectrometer mapper JIRAM, operating in the near infrared (between 2 and 5 μm), conducts surveys in the upper layers of the atmosphere to a depth of between 50 and 70 km (31 and 43 mi) where the pressure reaches 5 to 7 bar (500 to 700 kPa). JIRAM will provide images of the aurora in the wavelength of 3.4 μm in regions with abundant H 3 + ions. By measuring the heat radiated by the atmosphere of Jupiter, JIRAM can determine how clouds with water are flowing beneath the surface. It can also detect methane , water vapor , ammonia and phosphine . It was not required that this device meets the radiation resistance requirements. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] The JIRAM instrument is expected to operate through the eighth orbit of Jupiter. [ 80 ] (Principal investigator: Alberto Adriani, Italian National Institute for Astrophysics ) JIRAM's  spin-compensation mirror is stuck since PJ44, but the instrument is operational. [ 84 ] Magnetometer (MAG) [ edit ] Main article: Magnetometer (Juno) MAG The magnetic field investigation has three goals: mapping of the magnetic field, determining the dynamics of Jupiter's interior, and determination of the three-dimensional structure of the polar magnetosphere. The magnetometer experiment consists of the Flux Gate Magnetometer ( FGM ), which will observe the strength and direction of the magnetic field lines, and the Advanced Stellar Compass ( ASC ), which will monitor the orientation of the magnetometer sensors. [ 75 ] (Principal investigator: Jack Connerney, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center ) Gravity Science (GS) [ edit ] Main article: Gravity Science (Juno) Gravity Science The purpose of measuring gravity by radio waves is to establish a map of the distribution of mass inside Jupiter. The uneven distribution of mass in Jupiter induces small variations in gravity all along the orbit followed by the probe when it runs closer to the surface of the planet. These gravity variations drive small probe velocity changes. The purpose of radio science is to detect the Doppler effect on radio broadcasts issued by Juno toward Earth in Ka-band and X-band , which are frequency ranges that can conduct the study with fewer disruptions related to the solar wind or Jupiter 's ionosphere . [ 85 ] [ 86 ] [ 74 ] (Principal investigator: John Anderson, Jet Propulsion Laboratory ; Principal investigator (Juno's Ka-band Translator): Luciano Iess, Sapienza University of Rome ) Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment (JADE) [ edit ] Main article: Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment JADE The energetic particle detector JADE will measure the angular distribution, energy, and the velocity vector of ions and electrons at low energy (ions between 13 eV and 20 KeV, electrons of 200 eV to 40 KeV) present in the aurora of Jupiter. On JADE, like JEDI, the electron analyzers are installed on three sides of the upper plate which allows a measure of frequency three times higher. [ 74 ] [ 87 ] (Principal investigator: David McComas , Southwest Research Institute ) Jovian Energetic Particle Detector Instrument (JEDI) [ edit ] Main article: Jovian Energetic Particle Detector Instrument JEDI The energetic particle detector JEDI will measure the angular distribution and the velocity vector of ions and electrons at high energy (ions between 20 keV and 1 MeV, electrons from 40 to 500 keV) present in the polar magnetosphere of Jupiter. JEDI has three identical sensors dedicated to the study of particular ions of hydrogen , helium , oxygen and sulfur . [ 74 ] [ 88 ] (Principal investigator: Barry Mauk, Applied Physics Laboratory ) Radio and Plasma Wave Sensor (Waves) [ edit ] Main article: Waves (Juno) Radio and Plasma Wave Sensor This instrument will identify the regions of auroral currents that define Jovian radio emissions and acceleration of the auroral particles by measuring the radio and plasma spectra in the auroral region. It will also observe the interactions between Jupiter's atmosphere and magnetosphere . The instrument consists of two antennae that detect radio and plasma waves. [ 75 ] (Principal investigator: William Kurth, University of Iowa ) Ultraviolet Spectrograph (UVS) [ edit ] Main article: UVS (Juno) Ultraviolet Spectrograph UVS will record the wavelength, position and arrival time of detected ultraviolet photons during the time when the spectrograph slit views Jupiter during each turn of the spacecraft. The instrument will provide spectral images of the UV auroral emissions in the polar magnetosphere. [ 75 ] (Principal investigator: G. Randall Gladstone, Southwest Research Institute ) JunoCam (JCM) [ edit ] Main article: JunoCam JunoCam A visible light camera/telescope, included in the payload to facilitate education and public outreach ; later re-purposed to study the dynamics of Jupiter's clouds, particularly those at the poles. [ 89 ] It was anticipated that it would operate through only eight orbits of Jupiter ending in September 2017 [ 90 ] due to the planet's damaging radiation and magnetic field, [ 80 ] but as of October 2023 (55 orbits), JunoCam remains operational. [ 91 ] (Principal investigator: Michael C. Malin , Malin Space Science Systems ) Locations of Juno 's science instruments Interactive 3D model of Juno Operational components [ edit ] Solar panels [ edit ] Illumination test on one of Juno 's solar panels Juno is the first mission to Jupiter to use solar panels instead of the radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) used by Pioneer 10 , Pioneer 11 , the Voyager program , Ulysses , Cassini–Huygens , New Horizons , and the Galileo orbiter . [ 92 ] It is also the farthest solar-powered trip in the history of space exploration. [ 93 ] Once in orbit around Jupiter, Juno receives only 4% as much sunlight as it would on Earth , but the global shortage of plutonium-238 at the time, [ 94 ] [ 95 ] [ 96 ] [ 97 ] as well as advances made in solar cell technology over the past several decades, makes it economically preferable to use solar panels of practical size to provide power at a distance of 5 a.u. from the Sun . [ 98 ] The Juno spacecraft uses three solar panels symmetrically arranged around the spacecraft. Shortly after it cleared Earth's atmosphere, the panels were deployed. Two of the panels have four hinged segments each, and the third panel has three segments and a magnetometer . Each panel is 2.7 by 8.9 m (8 ft 10 in by 29 ft 2 in) [ 99 ] providing 50 square metres (540 sq ft) of active cells [ 100 ] [ 101 ] – the largest on any NASA deep-space probe at the time of launching. [ 102 ] The combined mass of the three panels is nearly 340 kg (750 lb). [ 103 ] If the panels were optimized to operate at Earth, they would produce 12 to 14 kilowatts of power. Only about 486 watts were generated when Juno arrived at Jupiter, projected to decline to near 420 watts as radiation degrades the cells. [ 104 ] The solar panels will remain in sunlight continuously from launch through the end of the mission, except for short periods during the operation of the main engine and eclipses by Jupiter. A central power distribution and drive unit monitors the power that is generated by the solar panels and distributes it to instruments, heaters, and experiment sensors, as well as to batteries that are charged when excess power is available. Two 55 Ah lithium-ion batteries that are able to withstand the radiation environment of Jupiter provide power when Juno passes through eclipse. [ 105 ] Telecommunications [ edit ] Juno 's high-gain antenna dish being installed Juno uses in-band signaling (\"tones\") for several critical operations as well as status reporting during cruise mode, [ 106 ] but it is expected to be used infrequently. Communications are via the 34 m (112 ft) and 70 m (230 ft) antennas of the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) utilizing an X-band direct link. [ 105 ] The command and data processing of the Juno spacecraft includes a flight computer capable of providing about 50 Mbit/s of instrument throughput. Gravity science subsystems use the X-band and K a -band Doppler tracking and autoranging. [ 107 ] Due to telecommunications constraints, Juno will only be able to return about 40 megabytes of JunoCam data during each 11-day orbital period, limiting the number of images that are captured and transmitted during each orbit to somewhere between 10 and 100 depending on the compression level used. [ 108 ] [ needs update ] The overall amount of data downlinked on each orbit is significantly higher and used for the mission's scientific instruments; JunoCam is intended for public outreach and is thus secondary to the science data. This is comparable to the previous Galileo mission that orbited Jupiter, which captured thousands of images [ 109 ] despite its slow data rate of 1000 bit/s (at maximum compression level) due to the failure of its high gain antenna . The communication system is also used as part of the Gravity Science experiment. [ 110 ] Propulsion [ edit ] Juno uses a LEROS 1b main engine with hypergolic propellant , manufactured by Moog Inc in Westcott, Buckinghamshire , England. [ 111 ] It uses approx. 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) of hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide for propulsion, including 1,232 kg (2,716 lb) available for the Jupiter Orbit Insertion plus subsequent orbital maneuvers. The engine provides a thrust of 645 newtons . The engine bell is enclosed in a debris shield fixed to the spacecraft body, and is used for major burns. For control of the vehicle's orientation ( attitude control ) and to perform trajectory correction maneuvers, Juno utilizes a monopropellant reaction control system (RCS) consisting of twelve small thrusters that are mounted on four engine modules. [ 105 ] Galileo plaque and minifigures [ edit ] Galileo Galilei plaque Juno carries a plaque to Jupiter, dedicated to Galileo Galilei . The plaque was provided by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and measures 7.1 by 5.1 cm (2.8 by 2.0 in). It is made of flight-grade aluminum and weighs 6 g (0.21 oz). [ 112 ] The plaque depicts a portrait of Galileo and a text in Galileo's own handwriting, penned in January 1610, while observing what would later be known to be the Galilean moons . [ 112 ] The text translates as: On the 11th it was in this formation – and the star closest to Jupiter was half the size than the other and very close to the other so that during the previous nights all of the three observed stars looked of the same dimension and among them equally afar; so that it is evident that around Jupiter there are three moving stars invisible till this time to everyone. The spacecraft also carries three Lego minifigures representing Galileo Galilei, the Roman god Jupiter , and his sister and wife, the goddess Juno . In Roman mythology, Jupiter drew a veil of clouds around himself to hide his mischief. Juno was able to peer through the clouds and reveal Jupiter's true nature. The Juno minifigure holds a magnifying glass as a sign of searching for the truth, and Jupiter holds a lightning bolt. The third Lego crew member, Galileo Galilei, has his telescope with him on the journey. [ 113 ] The figurines were produced in partnership between NASA and Lego as part of an outreach program to inspire children's interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). [ 114 ] Although most Lego toys are made of plastic, Lego specially made these minifigures of aluminum to endure the extreme conditions of space flight. [ 115 ] Scientific results [ edit ] Among early results, Juno gathered information about Jovian lightning that revised earlier theories. [ 116 ] Juno provided the first views of Jupiter's north pole, as well as providing insight about Jupiter's aurorae, magnetic field, and atmosphere. [ 117 ] In 2021, analysis of the frequency of interplanetary dust impacts (primarily on the backs of the solar panels), as Juno passed between Earth and the asteroid belt, indicated that this dust, which causes the Zodiacal light , comes from Mars , rather than from comets or asteroids that come from the outer solar system, as was previously thought. [ 118 ] Juno made many discoveries that are challenging existing theories about Jupiter's formation. When Juno flew over the poles of Jupiter it imaged clusters of stable cyclones that exist at the poles. [ 119 ] It found that the magnetosphere of Jupiter is uneven and chaotic. Using its Microwave Radiometer, Juno found that the red and white bands that can be seen on Jupiter extend hundreds of kilometers into the Jovian atmosphere, yet the interior of Jupiter is not evenly mixed. This has resulted in the theory that Jupiter does not have a solid core as previously thought, but a \"fuzzy\" core made of pieces of rock and metallic hydrogen . This peculiar core may be a result of a collision that happened early on in Jupiter's formation. [ 120 ] In April 2020, Juno detected a meteor impact on Jupiter , with estimated mass of 250-5000 kg. [ 121 ] Results from Juno on storms suggests that they are far taller than expected, with some extending 60 miles (100 kilometers) below the cloud tops and others, including the Great Red Spot, extending over 200 miles (350 kilometers). With Juno traveling low over Jupiter's cloud deck at about 130,000 mph (209,000 kph) Juno scientists were able to measure velocity changes as small 0.01 millimeter per second using a NASA's Deep Space Network tracking antenna, from a distance of more than 400 million miles (650 million kilometers). This enabled the team to constrain the depth of the Great Red Spot to about 300 miles (500 kilometers) below the cloud tops. The new results show that the cyclones are warmer on top, with lower atmospheric densities, while they are colder at the bottom, with higher densities. Anticyclones, which rotate in the opposite direction, are colder at the top but warmer at the bottom. [ 122 ] Timeline [ edit ] Date ( UTC ) Event Latitude (centric) [ 123 ] Longitude (Sys. III) [ 123 ] August 5, 2011, 16:25:00 Launched [ 124 ] August 5, 2012, 06:57:00 Deep Space Maneuvers [ 125 ] (total dV: 345 m/s + 385 m/s) [ 126 ] September 3, 2012, 06:30:00 October 9, 2013, 19:21:00 Earth gravity assist (from 126,000 to 150,000 km/h (78,000 to 93,000 mph)) [ 127 ] — Gallery July 5, 2016, 03:53:00 Arrival at Jupiter and polar orbit insertion (1st orbit). [ 4 ] [ 5 ] 3° 30° August 27, 2016, 12:50:44 Perijove 1 [ 128 ] — Gallery 4° 100° October 19, 2016, 18:10:53 Perijove 2: Planned Period Reduction Maneuver, but the main engine's fuel pressurisation system did not operate as expected. [ 129 ] 5° 350° December 11, 2016, 17:03:40 Perijove 3 [ 130 ] [ 131 ] 6° 10° February 2, 2017, 12:57:09 Perijove 4 [ 131 ] [ 132 ] 7° 270° March 27, 2017, 08:51:51 Perijove 5 [ 53 ] 8° 180° May 19, 2017, 06:00:47 Perijove 6 [ 54 ] 8° 140° July 11, 2017, 01:54:42 Perijove 7: Flyover of the Great Red Spot [ 133 ] [ 134 ] 9° 50° September 1, 2017, 21:48:50 Perijove 8 [ 135 ] 10° 320° October 24, 2017, 17:42:31 Perijove 9 [ 136 ] 11° 230° December 16, 2017, 17:56:59 Perijove 10 [ 137 ] [ 138 ] 12° 300° February 7, 2018, 13:51:49 Perijove 11 [ 124 ] 13° 210° April 1, 2018, 09:45:57 Perijove 12 [ 124 ] 14° 110° May 24, 2018, 05:40:07 Perijove 13 [ 124 ] 15° 20° July 16, 2018, 05:17:38 Perijove 14 [ 124 ] 16° 70° September 7, 2018, 01:11:55 Perijove 15 [ 124 ] 17° 340° October 29, 2018, 21:06:15 Perijove 16 [ 124 ] 17° 250° December 21, 2018, 17:00:25 Perijove 17 [ 139 ] [ 124 ] 18° 160° February 12, 2019, 16:19:48 Perijove 18 [ 124 ] 19° 240° April 6, 2019, 12:13:58 Perijove 19 [ 124 ] 20° 100° May 29, 2019, 08:08:13 Perijove 20 [ 124 ] 20° 10° July 21, 2019, 04:02:44 Perijove 21 [ 140 ] [ 124 ] 21° 280° September 12, 2019, 03:40:47 Perijove 22 [ 140 ] [ 124 ] 22° 320° November 3, 2019, 23:32:56 Perijove 23 [ 124 ] 22° 190° December 26, 2019, 16:58:59 Perijove 24: Distant Ganymede flyby [ 124 ] [ 141 ] 23° 70° February 17, 2020, 17:51:36 Perijove 25 [ 124 ] 23° 140° April 10, 2020, 14:24:34 Perijove 26 [ 124 ] 24° 50° June 2, 2020, 10:19:55 Perijove 27 [ 124 ] 25° 340° July 25, 2020, 06:15:21 Perijove 28 [ 124 ] 25° 250° September 16, 2020, 02:10:49 Perijove 29 [ 124 ] 26° 160° November 8, 2020, 01:49:39 Perijove 30 [ 124 ] 27° 210° December 30, 2020, 21:45:12 Perijove 31 [ 124 ] 27° 120° February 21, 2021, 17:40:31 Perijove 32 [ 124 ] 28° 30° April 15, 2021, 13:36:26 Perijove 33 [ 124 ] [ 142 ] 29° 300° June 8, 2021, 07:46:00 Perijove 34: Ganymede flyby, coming within 1,038 km (645 mi) of the moon's surface. [ 23 ] Orbital period reduced from 53 days to 43 days. [ 143 ] [ 124 ] [ 123 ] 28° 290° July 21, 2021, 08:15:05 Perijove 35: End of first mission extension. [ 143 ] Originally scheduled for July 30, 2021, prior to approval of second mission extension. [ 144 ] 29° 300° September 2, 2021 Perijove 36 [ 124 ] 30° 100° October 16, 2021 Perijove 37 [ 124 ] 31° 40° November 29, 2021 Perijove 38 [ 124 ] 31° 80° January 12, 2022 Perijove 39 [ 124 ] 32° 90° February 25, 2022 Perijove 40 [ 124 ] 33° 280° April 9, 2022 Perijove 41 [ 124 ] 34° 60° May 23, 2022 Perijove 42 [ 124 ] 35° 70° July 5, 2022 Perijove 43 [ 124 ] 36° 310° August 17, 2022 Perijove 44 [ 124 ] 37° 150° September 29, 2022, 09:36 Perijove 45: Europa flyby. Closest approach: 352 km (219 mi). Orbital period reduced from 43 days to 38 days. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 123 ] 37° 230° November 6, 2022 Perijove 46 [ 124 ] 38° 350° December 15, 2022 Perijove 47: Io flyby on Dec 14, 2022. Closest approach: 64,000 km (40,000 mi). [ 124 ] 39° 160° January 22, 2023 Perijove 48 [ 124 ] 40° 200° March 1, 2023 Perijove 49 [ 124 ] 41° 170° April 8, 2023 Perijove 50 [ 124 ] 42° 210° May 16, 2023 Perijove 51 [ 124 ] 43° 140° June 23, 2023 Perijove 52 [ 124 ] 44° 80° July 31, 2023 Perijove 53: Io flyby on July 30, 2023. Closest approach: 22,000 km (14,000 mi). [ 145 ] 45° 120° September 7, 2023 Perijove 54 [ 124 ] 45° 190° October 15, 2023 Perijove 55 [ 124 ] 46° 110° November 22, 2023 Perijove 56 [ 124 ] 47° 120° December 30, 2023 Perijove 57: Io flyby. Closest approach: 1,500 km (930 mi). [ 146 ] 47° 90° February 3, 2024 Perijove 58: Io flyby. Closest approach: 1,500 km (930 mi). [ 146 ] Orbital period reduced from 38 to 33 days. [ 143 ] [ 123 ] 48° 290° March 7, 2024 Perijove 59:  Distant Amalthea flyby. Closest approach: 117,500 km (73,000 mi) [ 123 ] 49° 0° April 9, 2024 Perijove 60 [ 123 ] 50° 40° May 12, 2024 Perijove 61 [ 123 ] 51° 250° June 14, 2024 Perijove 62 [ 123 ] 52° 60° July 17, 2024 Perijove 63 [ 123 ] 53° 260° August 18, 2024 Perijove 64 [ 123 ] 54° 40° September 20, 2024 Perijove 65 [ 123 ] 55° 240° October 23, 2024 Perijove 66 [ 123 ] 56° 20° November 25, 2024 Perijove 67 [ 123 ] 57° 120° December 28, 2024 Perijove 68 [ 123 ] 57° 310° January 30, 2025 Perijove 69 [ 123 ] 58° 110° March 4, 2025 Perijove 70: Thebe flyby on March 2, 2025. Closest approach: 31,780 km (19,750 mi) [ 123 ] 59° 0° April 5, 2025 Perijove 71 [ 123 ] 60° 210° May 8, 2025 Perijove 72 [ 123 ] 61° 50° June 10, 2025 Perijove 73 [ 123 ] 62° 320° July 13, 2025 Perijove 74 [ 123 ] 63° 180° August 15, 2025 Perijove 75 [ 123 ] 63° 80° September 17, 2025 Perijove 76: End of second mission extension. [ 143 ] [ 123 ] 64° 320° Gallery [ edit ] Jupiter [ edit ] Perijove 26 image Image from about 94,500 km (58,700 mi) of Jupiter's southern polar region (27 August 2016) Jupiter growing and shrinking in apparent size before and after the spacecraft made its closest approach (27 August 2016) Infrared view of the southern aurora of Jupiter (27 August 2016) Southern storms of Jupiter Area of Jupiter where multiple atmospheric conditions appear to collide (27 March 2017) Retreating from Jupiter, about 46,900 km (29,100 mi) above the cloud tops (19 May 2017) Image taken from 16,535 km (10,274 mi) above the atmosphere at a latitude of −36.9° (10 July 2017) Closeup of the Great Red Spot taken from about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) above it (11 July 2017) The Great Red Spot as seen by JunoCam in April 2018 Jupiter viewed by Juno (12 February 2019) Jupiter flyover (Juno; 05:07; 2 June 2020) Photograph taken at the end of Perijove 15 (September 6, 2018) Moons [ edit ] Ganymede, taken by the JunoCam instrument during Juno ' s flyby on 7 June 2021 [ 147 ] Infrared view of Ganymede during the anniversary flyby by Juno View of Europa taken during Juno ' s flyby on 29 September 2022 Low resolution view of Io captured by JunoCam (September 2017) Io, as recorded by JunoCam (2 September 2017) Plume near Io's terminator (21 December 2018) [ 148 ] Io, viewed by JunoCam Several Volcanos (15 October 2023) Io, viewed by JunoCam Volcanic plume (15 October 2023) Io, taken by the JunoCam instrument during Juno ' s flyby (30 December 2023) [ 149 ] See also [ edit ] Atmosphere of Jupiter Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 Europa Clipper Exploration of Jupiter Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer List of missions to the outer planets Moons of Jupiter References [ edit ] ^ a b \"Juno Mission to Jupiter\" (PDF) . 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Gill v t e Juno spacecraft Instruments GS (Gravity Science) JEDI (Jupiter Energetic-particle Detector Instrument) JADE (Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment) JIRAM (Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper) JCM (JunoCam) MAG (Magnetometer) MWR (Microwave Radiometer) UVS (Ultraviolet Spectrograph) Waves (Radio and Plasma Waves Experiment) Design Juno Radiation Vault Related articles Atlas V (launcher) Jupiter (destination) New Frontiers program NASA v t e NASA Planetary Missions Program Office Discovery program Missions Main NEAR Shoemaker Mars Pathfinder Lunar Prospector Stardust Genesis CONTOUR † MESSENGER Deep Impact Dawn Kepler GRAIL InSight Lucy Psyche VERITAS DAVINCI Opportunity ASPERA-3 EPOXI NExT Moon Mineralogy Mapper Strofio MEGANE Proposals Finalists Mission 12 Comet Hopper Titan Mare Explorer Mission 13 and 14 NEOCam Mission 15 and 16 Io Volcano Observer Trident Candidates Enceladus Life Finder Icebreaker Life ISOCHRON JET LIFE MANTIS Mars Geyser Hopper Moon Diver PADME Phobos Surveyor Whipple New Frontiers program Missions New Horizons Juno OSIRIS-REx Dragonfly Proposals Finalists Mission 2 MoonRise Mission 3 MoonRise SAGE Mission 4 CAESAR Candidates CONDOR CORSAIR ELF ELSAH Oceanus SPRITE VICI VISAGE VOX Solar System Exploration program Missions DART JUICE instruments Europa Clipper Underline indicates active current missions Italics indicate missions yet to launch Symbol † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned v t e Spacecraft missions to Jupiter Flybys Pioneer program Pioneer 10 11 ‡ Voyager program Voyager 1 ‡ 2 ‡ Ulysses ‡ Cassini–Huygens ‡ New Horizons ‡ Orbiters Galileo Juno (active) Atmospheric probes Galileo Probe En route Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) (2023, insertion 2031) Europa Clipper (2024, insertion 2030) Planned missions Tianwen-4 (2029, insertion 2035) Proposed missions Shensuo ‡ (2020s) Europa Lander (2025) Interstellar Probe ‡ (2036) Cancelled or not developed Argo Europa Jupiter System Mission-Laplace Jupiter Europa Orbiter Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter Europa Orbiter FIRE Innovative Interstellar Explorer Io Volcano Observer Jovian Europa Orbiter Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Laplace-P New Horizons 2 OKEANOS Pioneer H SMARA Trident Tsiolkovsky mission Related topics Exploration of Jupiter Atmosphere of Jupiter Magnetosphere of Jupiter Moons of Jupiter Io Exploration Europa Ganymede Callisto Rings of Jupiter Deep Space Network Missions to outer planets Colonization of the outer Solar System Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned. ‡ indicates use of the planet as a gravity assist en route to another destination. v t e Jupiter Outline of Jupiter Geography Atmosphere Great Red Spot Magnetosphere Rings Jupiter's North Pole Jupiter's South Pole Moons Inner Metis Adrastea Amalthea Thebe Galilean Io Europa Ganymede Callisto Irregular Himalia group Themisto Carpo group Valetudo Ananke group Carme group Pasiphae group Astronomy General Jupiter-crossing minor planets Solar eclipses Trojans Greek camp Trojan camp Impacts Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 2009 Jupiter impact event 2010 Jupiter impact event 2016 Jupiter impact event Exploration , orbital missions Current Juno Past Cassini–Huygens Galileo project Galileo New Horizons Pioneer program Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Ulysses Voyager program Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Future Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (2023, en route) Europa Clipper (2024, en route) Tianwen-4 (2029) Proposed Laplace-P (2023) Shensuo (2024) Io Volcano Observer (2026) SMARA (2030) Enceladus Orbilander (2038) Related Fiction Mythology Category Solar System portal v t e Science instruments on satellites and spacecraft Radar Cassini–Huygens Magellan Pioneer Venus Orbiter REASON SELENE SHARAD MARSIS Venera 4 8 9 10 15 16 WISDOM Radio science Akatsuki Cassini–Huygens Europa-UVS ExoMars lander Galileo InSight Kaguya Magellan Mariner 2 3 4 5 6, 7 9 10 Mars Express MESSENGER Nozomi Pioneer 7 10 11 Pioneer Venus Orbiter Sakigake Venus Express Venera 9 Voyager 1 2 Radiometer Microwave Near-Earth AQUA AMR-C ( Sentinel-6 ) AMSR-E (AQUA) AMSR ( ADEOS II ) AMSR2 ( Shizuku ) DMSP 5D-2/F13-F15 DMSP 5D-2/F16 ERSS Envisat GPM Core Kanopus-ST MIRAS MISR , MOPITT ( Terra ) MSR ( MOS-1 , MOS-1b) MTVZA ( Meteor-3M-1 ) MTVZA-GYa Meteor-M2 Meteor-M2-1 Nimbus 7 RM-08 and MTVZA-OK ( Sich-1M ) Seasat Sentinel-3 SMAP SMMR SMOS SSM/I SSMIS TRMM WSF-M Zond-PP Interplanetary Cassini-Huygens Electra (radio) Mariner 2 MWR ( Juno ) Rosetta Infrared-visible Near-Earth AVHRR ASTER , MISR ( Terra ) AIRS AVNIR AVNIR-2 CERES (TRMM, Terra, Aura, Suomi NPP, NOAA-20 ) ERBS ERSS GLI ( ADEOS II ) Kanopus-V-IK MESSR and VTIR MOS-1 1b Meteor-2 MODIS (Terra, Aqua) OPS ( JERS-1 ) ORI ( EURECA ) Radiation Budget Instrument SGLI ( GCOM-C ) SLSTR ( Sentinel-3 ) VIIRS ( Suomi NPP , NOAA-21 ) Interplanetary COMARS+ (on Schiaparelli ) Diviner (on LRO ) HP3 (on InSight ) IRIS Luna 13 Mariner 6 and 7 Mariner 10 Mars 96 2M No.521 2M No.522 Pioneer 10 11 PMIRR (on Mars Climate Orbiter ) Venera 9 10 Voyager 1 2 Ultraviolet (UV) Near-Earth ORI ( EURECA ) LYRA Proba-2 Spectrophotometers Long wavelength Interplanetary ISO Visible-IR (VIRS) Near-Earth CASE MOMS Multispectral Scanner SCIAMACHY TES TRMM Interplanetary AKARI Rosalind Franklin rover MA-MISS ISEM Infrared Space Observatory IRIS ( Voyager 1 and 2 ) JIRAM (on Juno) M 3 Mariner 6 and 7 MESSENGER MERIS E-THEMIS , MISE , SUDA (on Europa Clipper ) Ralph SPICAM SPICAV Venus Emissivity Mapper UV-visible (UVVS) 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2020s 2020 Chang'e 5 2022 Double Asteroid Redirection Test Mangalyaan InSight 2023 Hakuto-R Mission 1 Luna 25 Chandrayaan-3 / Pragyan rover Zhurong rover 2024 Peregrine Mission One Ingenuity helicopter SLIM IM-1 List of Solar System probes List of lunar probes List of extraterrestrial orbiters List of space telescopes v t e ← 2010 Orbital launches in 2011 2012 → January Elektro-L No.1 USA-224 Kounotori 2 Progress M-09M ( Kedr ) February Kosmos 2470 USA-225 Johannes Kepler ATV STS-133 ( Leonardo ) Kosmos 2471 March Glory , Explorer-1 [Prime] , KySat-1 , Hermes USA-226 USA-227 April Soyuz TMA-21 Compass-IGSO3 USA-229 Resourcesat-2 , YouthSat , X-Sat Yahsat 1A , New Dawn Progress M-10M May Meridian 4 USA-230 STS-134 ( AMS-02 , ELC-3 ) Telstar 14R ST-2 , GSAT-8 / INSAT-4G June Soyuz TMA-02M SAC-D Rasad 1 ChinaSat 10 Progress M-11M Kosmos 2472 USA-231 July Shijian XI-03 STS-135 ( Raffaello , PSSC-2 ) Tianlian I-02 Globalstar M083 , Globalstar M088 , Globalstar M091 , Globalstar M085 , 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Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses). v t e 2016 in space « 2015 2017 » Space probe launches Hitomi (X-ray observatory; Feb 2016) ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (Mars orbiter; Mar 2016) OSIRIS-REx (asteroid sample-return mission; Sep 2016) Impact events DN160822 03 Selected NEOs Asteroid close approaches (85990) 1999 JV 6 1994 WR 12 2013 TX 68 2016 EU 85 469219 Kamoʻoalewa 2016 PQ (164121) 2003 YT 1 Exoplanets 38 Virginis b atmospheric composition of 55 Cancri e BD+20 594b Gliese 536 b HD 19467 b HD 131399 Ab (retracted in 2022) HD 164922 c HIP 41378 b c d e f K2-33b K2-332 b K2-72 b c d e KELT-9b KELT-11b Kepler-20g Kepler-56d Kepler-737b Kepler-1229b Kepler-1520b Kepler-1625b Kepler-1638b Kepler-1647b OGLE-2007-BLG-349(AB)b OGLE-2012-BLG-0950Lb Proxima Centauri b Pr0211 c Qatar-3b Qatar-4b Qatar-5b TRAPPIST-1 b c d TW Hydrae b V830 Tauri b 2MASS J11193254–1137466 AB 2MASS J2126–8140 as planet Discoveries GW150914 (announced) IDCS 1426 Planet Nine (hypothesized) GN-z11 SDSS J1240+6710 Crater 2 GW151226 (announced) 2015 RR 245 (announced) BOSS Great Wall GRB 160625B 471325 Taowu (announced) 2014 UZ 224 (announced) WISE J080822.18-644357.3 Virgo I Novae ASASSN-15lh SN 2016aps ASASSN-16kt ASASSN-16ma Comets 252P/LINEAR 460P/PanSTARRS 53P/Van Biesbroeck C/2016 R2 (PANSTARRS) 81P/Wild 9P/Tempel 144P/Kushida 43P/Wolf–Harrington 45P/Honda–Mrkos–Pajdušáková Space exploration Juno (entered Jupiter orbit; Jul 2016) Rosetta / Philae (end of mission to comet 67P ; Sep 2016) Schiaparelli EDM (Mars lander; Oct 2016) Outer space portal Category:2015 in outer space — Category:2016 in outer space — Category:2017 in outer space Portals : Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Science\n",
      "Ongoing NASA interstellar program A poster of the planets and moons visited during the Voyager program. The Voyager program is an American scientific program that employs two interstellar probes , Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 . They were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a favorable planetary alignment to explore the two gas giants Jupiter and Saturn and potentially also the ice giants, Uranus and Neptune - to fly near them while collecting data for transmission back to Earth. After Voyager 1 successfully completed its flyby of Saturn and its moon Titan , it was decided to send Voyager 2 on flybys of Uranus and Neptune . [ 1 ] After the planetary flybys were complete, decisions were made to keep the probes in operation to explore interstellar space and the outer regions of the solar system. On 25 August 2012, data from Voyager 1 indicated that it had entered interstellar space. [ 2 ] On 5 November 2019, data from Voyager 2 indicated that it also had entered interstellar space. [ 3 ] On 4 November 2019, scientists reported that on 5 November 2018, the Voyager 2 probe had officially reached the interstellar medium (ISM), a region of outer space beyond the influence of the solar wind , as did Voyager 1 in 2012. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In August 2018, NASA confirmed, based on results by the New Horizons spacecraft, the existence of a \" hydrogen wall \" at the outer edges of the Solar System that was first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] As of 2024, [update] the Voyagers are still in operation beyond the outer boundary of the heliosphere in interstellar space . Voyager 1 is moving with a velocity of 61,198 kilometers per hour (38,027 mph), or 17 km/s, (10.5 miles/second) relative to the Sun, and is 24,475,900,000 kilometers (1.52086 × 10 10 mi) from the Sun [ 10 ] reaching a distance of 162 AU (24.2 billion km ; 15.1 billion mi ) from Earth as of May 25, 2024. [ 11 ] As of 2024 [update] , Voyager 2 is moving with a velocity of 55,347 kilometers per hour (34,391 mph), or 15 km/s, relative to the Sun, and is 20,439,100,000 kilometers (1.27003 × 10 10 mi) from the Sun [ 12 ] reaching a distance of 136.627 AU (20.4 billion km ; 12.7 billion mi ) from Earth as of May 25, 2024. [ 11 ] The two Voyagers are the only human-made objects to date that have passed into interstellar space — a record they will hold until at least the 2040s — and Voyager 1 is the farthest human-made object from Earth. [ 13 ] History [ edit ] Further information: Grand Tour program Mariner Jupiter-Saturn [ edit ] See also: Grand Tour program § Mariner Jupiter-Saturn The trajectories that enabled the Voyager spacecraft to visit the outer planets and achieve velocity to escape the Solar System Plot of Voyager 2 ' s heliocentric velocity against its distance from the Sun, illustrating the use of gravity assist to accelerate the spacecraft by Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. To observe Triton , Voyager 2 passed over Neptune's north pole, resulting in an acceleration out of the plane of the ecliptic and reduced its velocity away from the Sun. [ 14 ] Voyager did things no one predicted, found scenes no one expected, and promises to outlive its inventors. Like a great painting or an abiding institution, it has acquired an existence of its own, a destiny beyond the grasp of its handlers. — Stephen J. Pyne [ 1 ] The two Voyager space probes were originally conceived as part of the Planetary Grand Tour planned during the late 1960s and early 70s that aimed to explore Jupiter , Saturn , Saturn's moon , Titan , Uranus , Neptune , and Pluto . The mission originated from the Grand Tour program , conceptualized by Gary Flandro , an aerospace engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in 1964, which leveraged a rare planetary alignment occurring once every 175 years. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] This alignment allowed a craft to reach all outer planets using gravitational assists . The mission was to send several pairs of probes and gained momentum in 1966 when it was endorsed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . However, in December 1971, the Grand Tour mission was canceled when funding was redirected to the Space Shuttle program . [ 17 ] In 1972, a scaled-down (four planets, two identical spacecraft) mission was proposed, utilizing a spacecraft derived from the Mariner series, initially intended to be Mariner 11 and Mariner 12 . The gravity-assist technique, successfully demonstrated by Mariner 10 , would be used to achieve significant velocity changes by maneuvering through an intermediate planet's gravitational field to minimize time towards Saturn. [ 18 ] The spacecrafts were then moved into a separate program named Mariner Jupiter-Saturn (also Mariner Jupiter-Saturn-Uranus , [ 19 ] MJS , or MJSU ), part of the Mariner program , later renamed because it was thought that the design of the two space probes had progressed sufficiently beyond that of the Mariner family to merit a separate name. [ 20 ] Voyager probes [ edit ] Interactive 3D model of the Voyager spacecraft . On March 4, 1977, NASA announced a competition to rename the mission, believing the existing name was not appropriate as the mission had differed significantly from previous Mariner missions. Voyager was chosen as the new name, referencing an earlier suggestion by William Pickering , who had proposed the name Navigator . Due to the name change occurring close to launch, the probes were still occasionally referred to as Mariner 11 and Mariner 12, or even Voyager 11 and Voyager 12. [ 17 ] Two mission trajectories were established: JST aimed at Jupiter, Saturn, and enhancing a Titan flyby, while JSX served as a contingency plan. JST focused on a Titan flyby, while JSX provided a flexible mission plan. If JST succeeded, JSX could proceed with the Grand Tour, but in case of failure, JSX could be redirected for a separate Titan flyby, forfeiting the Grand Tour opportunity. [ 18 ] The second probe, now Voyager 2 , followed the JSX trajectory, granting it the option to continue on to Uranus and Neptune. Upon Voyager 1 completing its main objectives at Saturn, Voyager 2 received a mission extension, enabling it to proceed to Uranus and Neptune. This allowed Voyager 2 to diverge from the originally planned JST trajectory. [ 17 ] The probes would be launched in August or September 1977, with their main objective being to compare the characteristics of Jupiter and Saturn, such as their atmospheres , magnetic fields , particle environments, ring systems , and moons . They would fly by planets and moons in either a JST or JSX trajectory. After completing their flybys, the probes would communicate with Earth, relaying vital data using their magnetometers , spectrometers , and other instruments to detect interstellar , solar , and cosmic radiation . Their radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) would limit the maximum communication time with the probes to roughly a decade . Following their primary missions, the probes would continue to drift into interstellar space. [ 18 ] Voyager 2 was the first to be launched. Its trajectory was designed to allow flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Voyager 1 was launched after Voyager 2 , but along a shorter and faster trajectory that was designed to provide an optimal flyby of Saturn's moon Titan , [ 21 ] which was known to be quite large and to possess a dense atmosphere. This encounter sent Voyager 1 out of the plane of the ecliptic, ending its planetary science mission. [ 22 ] Had Voyager 1 been unable to perform the Titan flyby, the trajectory of Voyager 2 could have been altered to explore Titan, forgoing any visit to Uranus and Neptune. [ 23 ] Voyager 1 was not launched on a trajectory that would have allowed it to continue to Uranus and Neptune, but could have continued from Saturn to Pluto without exploring Titan. [ 24 ] During the 1990s, Voyager 1 overtook the slower deep-space probes Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 to become the most distant human-made object from Earth, a record that it will keep for the foreseeable future. The New Horizons probe, which had a higher launch velocity than Voyager 1 , is travelling more slowly due to the extra speed Voyager 1 gained from its flybys of Jupiter and Saturn. Voyager 1 and Pioneer 10 are the most widely separated human-made objects anywhere since they are travelling in roughly opposite directions from the Solar System . In December 2004, Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock , where the solar wind is slowed to subsonic speed, and entered the heliosheath , where the solar wind is compressed and made turbulent due to interactions with the interstellar medium . On 10 December 2007, Voyager 2 also reached the termination shock, about 1.6 billion kilometres (1 billion miles) closer to the Sun than from where Voyager 1 first crossed it, indicating that the Solar System is asymmetrical . [ 25 ] In 2010 Voyager 1 reported that the outward velocity of the solar wind had dropped to zero, and scientists predicted it was nearing interstellar space . [ 26 ] In 2011, data from the Voyagers determined that the heliosheath is not smooth, but filled with giant magnetic bubbles, theorized to form when the magnetic field of the Sun becomes warped at the edge of the Solar System. [ 27 ] In June 2012, Scientists at NASA reported that Voyager 1 was very close to entering interstellar space, indicated by a sharp rise in high-energy particles from outside the Solar System. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] In September 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had crossed the heliopause on 25 August 2012, making it the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] In December 2018, NASA announced that Voyager 2 had crossed the heliopause on 5 November 2018, making it the second spacecraft to enter interstellar space. [ 3 ] As of 2017 [update] Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 continue to monitor conditions in the outer expanses of the Solar System. [ 33 ] The Voyager spacecraft are expected to be able to operate science instruments through 2020, when limited power will require instruments to be deactivated one by one. Sometime around 2025, there will no longer be sufficient power to operate any science instruments. In July 2019, a revised power management plan was implemented to better manage the two probes' dwindling power supply. [ 34 ] Spacecraft design [ edit ] Voyager spacecraft diagram The Voyager spacecraft each weighed 815 kilograms (1,797 pounds) at launch, but after fuel usage are now about 733 kilograms (1,616 pounds). [ 35 ] Of this weight, each spacecraft carries 105 kilograms (231 pounds) of scientific instruments. [ 36 ] The identical Voyager spacecraft use three-axis-stabilized guidance systems that use gyroscopic and accelerometer inputs to their attitude control computers to point their high-gain antennas towards the Earth and their scientific instruments towards their targets, sometimes with the help of a movable instrument platform for the smaller instruments and the electronic photography system. The diagram shows the high-gain antenna (HGA) with a 3.7 m (12 ft) diameter dish attached to the hollow decagonal electronics container. There is also a spherical tank that contains the hydrazine monopropellant fuel. The Voyager Golden Record is attached to one of the bus sides. The angled square panel to the right is the optical calibration target and excess heat radiator. The three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the lower boom. The scan platform comprises: the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at top right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) just above the IRIS; the two Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon cameras to the left of the UVS; and the Photopolarimeter System (PPS) under the ISS. Only five investigation teams are still supported, though data is collected for two additional instruments. [ 37 ] The Flight Data Subsystem (FDS) and a single eight-track digital tape recorder (DTR) provide the data handling functions. The FDS configures each instrument and controls instrument operations. It also collects engineering and science data and formats the data for transmission . The DTR is used to record high-rate Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS) data, which is played back every six months. The Imaging Science Subsystem made up of a wide-angle and a narrow-angle camera is a modified version of the slow scan vidicon camera designs that were used in the earlier Mariner flights. The Imaging Science Subsystem consists of two television-type cameras, each with eight filters in a commandable filter wheel mounted in front of the vidicons. One has a low resolution 200 mm (7.9 in) focal length wide-angle lens with an aperture of f/3 (the wide-angle camera), while the other uses a higher resolution 1,500 mm (59 in) narrow-angle f/8.5 lens (the narrow-angle camera). Three spacecraft were built, Voyager 1 (VGR 77-1), Voyager 2 (VGR 77-3), and test spare model (VGR 77-2). [ 38 ] [ 13 ] Scientific instruments [ edit ] List of scientific instruments Instrument name Abbreviation Description Imaging Science System ISS Used a two-camera system (narrow-angle/wide-angle) to provide imagery of Jupiter, Saturn and other objects along the trajectory. Filters Narrow-angle camera [ 39 ] Name Wavelength Spectrum Sensitivity 0 – Clear 280–640 nm 4 – Clear 280–640 nm 7 – UV 280–370 nm 1 – Violet 350–450 nm 2 – Blue 430–530 nm 5 – Green 530–640 nm 6 – Green 530–640 nm 3 – Orange 590–640 nm Wide-angle camera [ 40 ] Name Wavelength Spectrum Sensitivity 2 – Clear 280–640 nm 3 – Violet 350–450 nm 1 – Blue 430–530 nm 6 – CH 4 -U 536–546 nm 5 – Green 530–640 nm 4 – Na -D 588–590 nm 7 – Orange 590–640 nm 0 – CH 4 -JST 614–624 nm Principal investigator: Bradford Smith / University of Arizona Data: PDS/PDI data catalog, PDS/PRN data catalog Radio Science System RSS Used the telecommunications system of the Voyager spacecraft to determine the physical properties of planets and satellites (ionospheres, atmospheres, masses, gravity fields, densities) and the amount and size distribution of material in the Saturn rings and the ring dimensions. Principal investigator: G. Tyler / Stanford University Data: PDS/PPI data catalog , PDS/PRN data catalog ( VG_2803 ) , NSSDC data archive Infrared interferometer spectrometer and radiometer IRIS Investigated both global and local energy balance and atmospheric composition. Vertical temperature profiles were also obtained from the planets and satellites, as well as the composition, thermal properties, and size of particles in Saturn's rings . Principal investigator: Rudolf Hanel / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Data: PDS/PRN data catalog, PDS/PRN expanded data catalog ( VGIRIS_0001, VGIRIS_002 ) , NSSDC Jupiter data archive Ultraviolet Spectrometer UVS Designed to measure atmospheric properties, and to measure radiation. Principal investigator: A. Broadfoot / University of Southern California Data: PDS/PRN data catalog Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer MAG Designed to investigate the magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn, the solar-wind interaction with the magnetospheres of these planets, and the interplanetary magnetic field out to the solar wind boundary with the interstellar magnetic field and beyond, if crossed. Principal investigator: Norman Ness / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Data: PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive Plasma Spectrometer PLS Investigated the macroscopic properties of the plasma ions and measures electrons in the energy range from 5 eV to 1 keV. Principal investigator: John Richardson / MIT Data: PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive Low Energy Charged Particle Instrument LECP Measures the differential in energy fluxes and angular distributions of ions, electrons and the differential in energy ion composition. Principal investigator: Stamatios Krimigis / JHU/APL / University of Maryland Data: UMD data plotting, PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive Cosmic Ray System CRS Determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Principal investigator: Edward Stone / Caltech / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Data: PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive Planetary Radio Astronomy Investigation PRA Used a sweep-frequency radio receiver to study the radio-emission signals from Jupiter and Saturn. Principal investigator: James Warwick / University of Colorado Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive Photopolarimeter System PPS Used a 6-inch f/1.4 Dahl-Kirkham-type Cassegrain telescope with an analyzer wheel containing five analyzers of 0,60,120,45 and 135 degrees and filter wheel with eight spectral bands covering 2350 to 7500A to gather information on surface texture and composition of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune and information on atmospheric scattering properties and density for these planets. Data: PDS/PRN data catalog and PDS Atmospheric Node Plasma Wave Subsystem PWS Provides continuous, sheath-independent measurements of the electron-density profiles at Jupiter and Saturn as well as basic information on local wave-particle interaction, useful in studying the magnetospheres. Principal investigator: Donald Gurnett / University of Iowa Data: PDS/PPI data catalog A view of some of Voyager's instruments from below. Left: the cameras, ultraviolet and infrared spectrometers (far left), plasma detector (black box lower right), particle and radiation detectors (far right). On the boom, center and right, are plasma, particle, and cosmic ray detectors. Voyager's fully extended 13-meter-long magnetometer boom Computers and data processing [ edit ] There are three different computer types on the Voyager spacecraft, two of each kind, sometimes used for redundancy. They are proprietary, custom-built computers built from CMOS and TTL medium-scale CMOS integrated circuits and discrete components, mostly from the 7400 series of Texas Instruments . [ 41 ] Total number of words among the six computers is about 32K. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have identical computer systems. [ 35 ] [ 42 ] The Computer Command System (CCS), the central controller of the spacecraft, has two 18-bit word, interrupt-type processors with 4096 words each of non-volatile plated-wire memory . During most of the Voyager mission the two CCS computers on each spacecraft were used non-redundantly to increase the command and processing capability of the spacecraft. The CCS is nearly identical to the system flown on the Viking spacecraft. [ 43 ] The Flight Data System (FDS) is two 16-bit word machines with modular memories and 8198 words each. The Attitude and Articulation Control System (AACS) is two 18-bit word machines with 4096 words each. Unlike the other on-board instruments, the operation of the cameras for visible light is not autonomous, but rather it is controlled by an imaging parameter table contained in one of the on-board digital computers , the Flight Data Subsystem (FDS). More recent space probes, since about 1990, usually have completely autonomous cameras. The computer command subsystem (CCS) controls the cameras. The CCS contains fixed computer programs such as command decoding, fault detection, and correction routines, antenna-pointing routines, and spacecraft sequencing routines. This computer is an improved version of the one that was used in the Viking orbiter . [ 43 ] The hardware in both custom-built CCS subsystems in the Voyagers is identical. There is only a minor software modification for one of them that has a scientific subsystem that the other lacks. According to Guinness Book of Records, CCS holds record of \"longest period of continual operation for a computer\". It has been running continuously since 20 August 1977. [ 44 ] The Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem (AACS) controls the spacecraft orientation (its attitude). It keeps the high-gain antenna pointing towards the Earth, controls attitude changes, and points the scan platform. The custom-built AACS systems on both craft are identical. It has been erroneously reported [ 45 ] on the Internet that the Voyager space probes were controlled by a version of the RCA 1802 (RCA CDP1802 \"COSMAC\" microprocessor ), but such claims are not supported by the primary design documents. The CDP1802 microprocessor was used later in the Galileo space probe , which was designed and built years later. The digital control electronics of the Voyagers were not based on a microprocessor integrated-circuit chip. Communications [ edit ] The uplink communications are executed via S-band microwave communications . The downlink communications are carried out by an X-band microwave transmitter on board the spacecraft, with an S-band transmitter as a back-up. All long-range communications to and from the two Voyagers have been carried out using their 3.7-meter (12 ft) high-gain antennas. The high-gain antenna has a beamwidth of 0.5° for X-band, and 2.3° for S-band. [ 46 ] : 17 (The low-gain antenna has a 7 dB gain and 60° beamwidth.) [ 46 ] : 17 Because of the inverse-square law in radio communications , the digital data rates used in the downlinks from the Voyagers have been continually decreasing the farther that they get from the Earth. For example, the data rate used from Jupiter was about 115,000 bits per second. That was halved at the distance of Saturn, and it has gone down continually since then. [ 46 ] Some measures were taken on the ground along the way to reduce the effects of the inverse-square law. In between 1982 and 1985, the diameters of the three main parabolic dish antennas of the Deep Space Network were increased from 64 to 70 m (210 to 230 ft) [ 46 ] : 34 dramatically increasing their areas for gathering weak microwave signals. Whilst the craft were between Saturn and Uranus the onboard software was upgraded to do a degree of image compression and to use a more efficient Reed-Solomon error-correcting encoding . [ 46 ] : 33 Then between 1986 and 1989, new techniques were brought into play to combine the signals from multiple antennas on the ground into one, more powerful signal, in a kind of an antenna array . [ 46 ] : 34 This was done at Goldstone, California , Canberra (Australia) , and Madrid (Spain) using the additional dish antennas available there. Also, in Australia, the Parkes Radio Telescope was brought into the array in time for the fly-by of Neptune in 1989. In the United States, the Very Large Array in New Mexico was brought into temporary use along with the antennas of the Deep Space Network at Goldstone. [ 46 ] : 34 Using this new technology of antenna arrays helped to compensate for the immense radio distance from Neptune to the Earth. Power [ edit ] RTGs for the Voyager program Electrical power is supplied by three MHW-RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). They are powered by plutonium-238 (distinct from the Pu-239 isotope used in nuclear weapons) and provided approximately 470 W at 30 volts DC when the spacecraft was launched. Plutonium-238 decays with a half-life of 87.74 years, [ 47 ] so RTGs using Pu-238 will lose a factor of 1−0.5 (1/87.74) = 0.79% of their power output per year. In 2011, 34 years after launch, the thermal power generated by such an RTG would be reduced to (1/2) (34/87.74) ≈ 76% of its initial power. The RTG thermocouples , which convert thermal power into electricity, also degrade over time reducing available electric power below this calculated level. By 7 October 2011 the power generated by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 had dropped to 267.9 W and 269.2 W respectively, about 57% of the power at launch. The level of power output was better than pre-launch predictions based on a conservative thermocouple degradation model. As the electrical power decreases, spacecraft loads must be turned off, eliminating some capabilities. There may be insufficient power for communications by 2032. [ 48 ] Voyager Interstellar Mission [ edit ] Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause, or the edge of the heliosphere , in August 2012. Voyager 2 crossed the heliosheath in November 2018. [ 3 ] [ 49 ] The Voyager primary mission was completed in 1989, with the close flyby of Neptune by Voyager 2 . The Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) is a mission extension, which began when the two spacecraft had already been in flight for over 12 years. [ 50 ] The Heliophysics Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate conducted a Heliophysics Senior Review in 2008. The panel found that the VIM \"is a mission that is absolutely imperative to continue\" and that VIM \"funding near the optimal level and increased DSN ( Deep Space Network ) support is warranted.\" [ 51 ] The main objective of the VIM was to extend the exploration of the Solar System beyond the outer planets to the heliopause (the farthest extent at which the Sun's radiation predominates over interstellar winds) and if possible even beyond. Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause boundary in 2012, followed by Voyager 2 in 2018. Passing through the heliopause boundary has allowed both spacecraft to make measurements of the interstellar fields, particles and waves unaffected by the solar wind . Two significant findings so far have been the discovery of a region of magnetic bubbles [ 52 ] and no indication of an expected shift in the Solar magnetic field. [ 53 ] The entire Voyager 2 scan platform, including all of the platform instruments, was switched off in 1998. All platform instruments on Voyager 1 , except for the ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) [ 54 ] have also been switched off. The Voyager 1 scan platform was scheduled to go off-line in late 2000 but has been left on to investigate UV emission from the upwind direction.\n",
      "UVS data are still captured but scans are no longer possible. [ 55 ] Gyro operations ended in 2016 for Voyager 2 and in 2017 for Voyager 1 . Gyro operations are used to rotate the probe 360 degrees six times per year to measure the magnetic field of the spacecraft, which is then subtracted from the magnetometer science data. The two spacecraft continue to operate, with some loss in subsystem redundancy but retain the capability to return scientific data from a full complement of Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) science instruments. Both spacecraft also have adequate electrical power and attitude control propellant to continue operating until around 2025, after which there may not be electrical power to support science instrument operation; science data return and spacecraft operations will cease. [ 56 ] Mission details [ edit ] This diagram about the heliosphere was released on 28 June 2013 and incorporates results from the Voyager spacecraft. [ 57 ] By the start of VIM, Voyager 1 was at a distance of 40 AU from the Earth, while Voyager 2 was at 31 AU. VIM is in three phases: termination shock, heliosheath exploration, and interstellar exploration phase. The spacecraft began VIM in an environment controlled by the Sun's magnetic field, with the plasma particles being dominated by those contained in the expanding supersonic solar wind. This is the characteristic environment of the termination shock phase. At some distance from the Sun, the supersonic solar wind will be held back from further expansion by the interstellar wind. The first feature encountered by a spacecraft as a result of this interaction – between interstellar wind and solar wind – was the termination shock, where the solar wind slows to subsonic speed, and large changes in plasma flow direction and magnetic field orientation occur. Voyager 1 completed the phase of termination shock in December 2004 at a distance of 94 AU, while Voyager 2 completed it in August 2007 at a distance of 84 AU. After entering into the heliosheath, the spacecraft were in an area that is dominated by the Sun's magnetic field and solar wind particles. After passing through the heliosheath, the two Voyagers began the phase of interstellar exploration. The outer boundary of the heliosheath is called the heliopause. This is the region where the Sun's influence begins to decrease and interstellar space can be detected. [ 58 ] Voyager 1 is escaping the Solar System at the speed of 3.6 AU per year 35° north of the ecliptic in the general direction of the solar apex in Hercules , while Voyager 2 ' s speed is about 3.3 AU per year, heading 48° south of the ecliptic. The Voyager spacecraft will eventually go on to the stars. In about 40,000 years , Voyager 1 will be within 1.6 light years (ly) of AC+79 3888, also known as Gliese 445 , which is approaching the Sun. In 40,000 years Voyager 2 will be within 1.7 ly of Ross 248 (another star which is approaching the Sun), and in 296,000 years it will pass within 4.6 ly of Sirius , which is the brightest star in the night-sky. [ 2 ] The spacecraft are not expected to collide with a star for 1 sextillion (10 20 ) years. [ 59 ] In October 2020, astronomers reported a significant unexpected increase in density in the space beyond the Solar System , as detected by the Voyager space probes . According to the researchers, this implies that \"the density gradient is a large-scale feature of the VLISM (very local interstellar medium ) in the general direction of the heliospheric nose \". [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Voyager Golden Record [ edit ] Main article: Voyager Golden Record The cover of the golden record Both spacecraft carry a 12-inch (30 cm) golden phonograph record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, symbolic directions on the cover for playing the record, and data detailing the location of Earth. [ 33 ] [ 29 ] The record is intended as a combination time capsule and an interstellar message to any civilization, alien or far-future human, that may recover either of the Voyagers. The contents of this record were selected by a committee that included Timothy Ferris and was chaired by Carl Sagan . [ 29 ] Pale Blue Dot [ edit ] Main article: Pale Blue Dot Seen from 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles), Earth appears as a \" pale blue dot \" (the blueish-white speck approximately halfway down the light band to the right). Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of Earth taken on February 14, 1990, by the Voyager 1 space probe from a distance of approximately 6 billion kilometers ( 3.7 billion miles, 40.5 AU ), as part of that day's Family Portrait series of images of the Solar System . [ 62 ] The Voyager program's discoveries during the primary phase of its mission, including new close-up color photos of the major planets, were regularly documented by print and electronic media outlets. Among the best-known of these is an image of the Earth as a Pale Blue Dot , taken in 1990 by Voyager 1 , and popularized by Carl Sagan, [ 63 ] Consider again that dot. That's here. That's home. That's us....The Earth is a very small stage in a vast cosmic arena.... To my mind, there is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this distant image of our tiny world. 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Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. ^ JPL.NASA.GOV. \"Voyager – The Interstellar Mission\" . voyager.jpl.nasa.gov . Archived from the original on 15 October 2009 . Retrieved 27 May 2016 . ^ Coryn A.L. Bailer-Jones, Davide Farnocchia (3 April 2019). \"Future stellar flybys of the Voyager and Pioneer spacecraft\" . Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society . 3 (4): 59. arXiv : 1912.03503 . Bibcode : 2019RNAAS...3...59B . doi : 10.3847/2515-5172/ab158e . S2CID 134524048 . ^ Starr, Michelle (19 October 2020). \"Voyager Spacecraft Detect an Increase in The Density of Space Outside The Solar System\" . ScienceAlert . Archived from the original on 19 October 2020 . Retrieved 19 October 2020 . ^ Kurth, W.S.; Gurnett, D.A. (25 August 2020). \"Observations of a Radial Density Gradient in the Very Local Interstellar Medium by Voyager 2\" . The Astrophysical Journal Letters . 900 (1): L1. Bibcode : 2020ApJ...900L...1K . doi : 10.3847/2041-8213/abae58 . S2CID 225312823 . ^ Staff (12 February 2020). \"Pale Blue Dot Revisited\" . NASA . Archived from the original on 12 February 2020 . Retrieved 12 February 2020 . ^ Sagan, Carl (1997). Pale Blue Dot . United States: Random House USA Inc. p. 6 - 7 . ISBN 978-0-345-37659-6 . Further reading [ edit ] Swift, David W. (1997). Voyager Tales . Reston, Va: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-56347-252-7 . Gallentine, Jay (2009). Ambassadors from Earth: Pioneering Explorations with Unmanned Spacecraft . Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2220-5 . Pyne, Stephen J. (2010). Voyager: Exploration, Space, and the Third Great Age of Discovery . Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311959-3 . Bell, Jim (2015). The Interstellar Age: Inside the Forty-Year Voyager Mission . Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-698-18615-6 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Voyager program . NASA sites NASA Voyager website Voyager Mission status (updated in real time) Voyager Spacecraft Lifetime NASA Facts – Voyager Mission to the Outer Planets Voyager 1 and 2 atlas of six Saturnian satellites, 1984 JPL Voyager Telecom Manual NASA instrument information pages: \"Voyager instrument overview\" . Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. \"CRS – COSMIC RAY SUBSYSTEM\" . Archived from the original on 3 August 2014 . Retrieved 11 November 2017 . \"ISS NA – IMAGING SCIENCE SUBSYSTEM – NARROW ANGLE\" . NASA . Retrieved 2 April 2023 . \"ISS WA – IMAGING SCIENCE SUBSYSTEM – WIDE ANGLE\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"IRIS – INFRARED INTERFEROMETER SPECTROMETER AND RADIOMETER\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"LECP – LOW ENERGY CHARGED PARTICLE\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"MAG – TRIAXIAL FLUXGATE MAGNETOMETER\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"PLS – PLASMA SCIENCE EXPERIMENT\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"PPS – PHOTOPOLARIMETER SUBSYSTEM\" . Archived from the original on 25 August 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"PRA – PLANETARY RADIO ASTRONOMY RECEIVER\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"PWS – PLASMA WAVE RECEIVER\" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009 . Retrieved 29 October 2009 . \"RSS – RADIO SCIENCE SUBSYSTEM\" . Archived from the original on 3 August 2014 . Retrieved 11 November 2017 . \"UVS – ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETER\" . Archived from the original on 3 August 2014 . Retrieved 11 November 2017 . 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      "\n",
      "NASA space telescope for exoplanetology (2009–2018) This article is about the space telescope. For the style of refracting telescope invented by Johannes Kepler, see Keplerian telescope . Kepler Artist's impression of the Kepler telescope Mission type Space telescope Operator NASA / LASP COSPAR ID 2009-011A SATCAT no. 34380 Website www .nasa .gov /kepler Mission duration Planned: 3.5 years Final: 9 years, 7 months, 23 days Spacecraft properties Manufacturer Ball Aerospace & Technologies Launch mass 1,052.4 kg (2,320 lb) [ 1 ] Dry mass 1,040.7 kg (2,294 lb) [ 1 ] Payload mass 478 kg (1,054 lb) [ 1 ] Dimensions 4.7 m × 2.7 m (15.4 ft × 8.9 ft) [ 1 ] Power 1100 watts [ 1 ] Start of mission Launch date March 7, 2009, 03:49:57 ( 2009-03-07UTC03:49:57 ) UTC [ 2 ] Rocket Delta II (7925-10L) Launch site Cape Canaveral SLC-17B Contractor United Launch Alliance Entered service May 12, 2009, 09:01 UTC End of mission Deactivated November 15, 2018 ( 2018-11-15 ) Orbital parameters Reference system Heliocentric Regime Earth -trailing Semi-major axis 1.0133 AU Eccentricity 0.036116 Perihelion altitude 0.97671 AU Aphelion altitude 1.0499 AU Inclination 0.4474 degrees Period 372.57 days Argument of perihelion 294.04 degrees Mean anomaly 311.67 degrees Mean motion 0.96626 deg/day Epoch January 1, 2018 ( J2000 : 2458119.5) [ 3 ] Main telescope Type Schmidt Diameter 0.95 m (3.1 ft) Collecting area 0.708 m 2 (7.62 sq ft) [ A ] Wavelengths 430–890 nm [ 3 ] Transponders Bandwidth X band up: 7.8 bit/s – 2 kbit/s [ 3 ] X band down: 10 bit/s – 16 kbit/s [ 3 ] K a band down: Up to 4.3 Mbit/s [ 3 ] Discovery program ← Dawn GRAIL → The Kepler space telescope is a defunct space telescope launched by NASA in 2009 [ 5 ] to discover Earth-sized planets orbiting other stars . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Named after astronomer Johannes Kepler , [ 8 ] the spacecraft was launched into an Earth-trailing heliocentric orbit . The principal investigator was William J. Borucki . After nine and a half years of operation, the telescope's reaction control system fuel was depleted, and NASA announced its retirement on October 30, 2018. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Designed to survey a portion of Earth's region of the Milky Way to discover Earth-size exoplanets in or near habitable zones and to estimate how many of the billions of stars in the Milky Way have such planets, [ 6 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Kepler's sole scientific instrument is a photometer that continually monitored the brightness of approximately 150,000 main sequence stars in a fixed field of view. [ 13 ] These data were transmitted to Earth, then analyzed to detect periodic dimming caused by exoplanets that cross in front of their host star. Only planets whose orbits are seen edge-on from Earth could be detected. Kepler observed 530,506 stars, and had detected 2,778 confirmed planets as of June 16, 2023. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] History [ edit ] Pre-launch development [ edit ] The Kepler space telescope was part of NASA's Discovery Program of relatively low-cost science missions. The telescope's construction and initial operation were managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , with Ball Aerospace responsible for developing the Kepler flight system. [ 16 ] In January 2006, the project's launch was delayed eight months because of budget cuts and consolidation at NASA. [ 17 ] It was delayed again by four months in March 2006 due to fiscal problems. [ 17 ] During this time, the high-gain antenna was changed from a design using a gimbal to one fixed to the frame of the spacecraft to reduce cost and complexity, at the cost of one observation day per month. [ 18 ] Post launch [ edit ] The Ames Research Center was responsible for the ground system development, mission operations since December 2009, and scientific data analysis. The initial planned lifetime was three and a half years, [ 19 ] but greater-than-expected noise in the data , from both the stars and the spacecraft, meant additional time was needed to fulfill all mission goals. Initially, in 2012, the mission was expected to be extended until 2016, [ 20 ] but on July 14, 2012, one of the four reaction wheels used for pointing the spacecraft stopped turning, and completing the mission would only be possible if the other three all remained reliable. [ 21 ] Then, on May 11, 2013, a second one failed, disabling the collection of science data [ 22 ] and threatening the continuation of the mission. [ 23 ] On August 15, 2013, NASA announced that they had given up trying to fix the two failed reaction wheels. This meant the current mission needed to be modified, but it did not necessarily mean the end of planet hunting. NASA had asked the space science community to propose alternative mission plans \"potentially including an exoplanet search, using the remaining two good reaction wheels and thrusters\". [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] On November 18, 2013, the K2 \"Second Light\" proposal was reported. This would include utilizing the disabled Kepler in a way that could detect habitable planets around smaller, dimmer red dwarfs . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] On May 16, 2014, NASA announced the approval of the K2 extension. [ 32 ] By January 2015, Kepler and its follow-up observations had found 1,013 confirmed exoplanets in about 440 star systems , along with a further 3,199 unconfirmed planet candidates. [ B ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Four planets have been confirmed through Kepler's K2 mission. [ 35 ] In November 2013, astronomers estimated, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion rocky Earth-size exoplanets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way . [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] It is estimated that 11 billion of these planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. [ 39 ] The nearest such planet may be 3.7 parsecs (12 ly ) away, according to the scientists. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] On January 6, 2015, NASA announced the 1,000th confirmed exoplanet discovered by the Kepler space telescope. Four of the newly confirmed exoplanets were found to orbit within habitable zones of their related stars : three of the four, Kepler-438b , Kepler-442b and Kepler-452b , are almost Earth-size and likely rocky; the fourth, Kepler-440b , is a super-Earth . [ 40 ] On May 10, 2016, NASA verified 1,284 new exoplanets found by Kepler, the single largest finding of planets to date. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] Kepler data have also helped scientists observe and understand supernovae ; measurements were collected every half-hour so the light curves were especially useful for studying these types of astronomical events. [ 44 ] On October 30, 2018, after the spacecraft ran out of fuel, NASA announced that the telescope would be retired. [ 45 ] The telescope was shut down the same day, bringing an end to its nine-year service. Kepler observed 530,506 stars and discovered 2,662 exoplanets over its lifetime. [ 15 ] A newer NASA mission, TESS , launched in 2018, is continuing the search for exoplanets. [ 46 ] Spacecraft design [ edit ] Kepler in Astrotech's Hazardous Processing Facility Interactive 3D model of Kepler The telescope has a mass of 1,039 kilograms (2,291 lb) and contains a Schmidt camera with a 0.95-meter (37.4 in) front corrector plate (lens) feeding a 1.4-meter (55 in) primary mirror —at the time of its launch this was the largest mirror on any telescope outside Earth orbit, [ 47 ] though the Herschel Space Observatory took this title a few months later. Its telescope has a 115 deg 2 (about 12-degree diameter) field of view (FoV), roughly equivalent to the size of one's fist held at arm's length. Of this, 105 deg 2 is of science quality, with less than 11% vignetting . The photometer has a soft focus to provide excellent photometry , rather than sharp images. The mission goal was a combined differential photometric precision (CDPP) of 20 ppm for a m (V)=12 Sun-like star for a 6.5-hour integration, though the observations fell short of this objective (see mission status ). Camera [ edit ] Kepler's image sensor array. The array is curved to account for Petzval field curvature . The focal plane of the spacecraft's camera is made out of forty-two 50 × 25 mm (2 × 1 in) CCDs at 2200×1024 pixels each, possessing a total resolution of 94.6 megapixels , [ 48 ] [ 49 ] which at the time made it the largest camera system launched into space. [ 19 ] The array was cooled by heat pipes connected to an external radiator. [ 1 ] The CCDs were read out every 6.5 seconds (to limit saturation) and co-added on board for 58.89 seconds for short cadence targets, and 1765.5 seconds (29.4 minutes) for long cadence targets. [ 50 ] Due to the larger bandwidth requirements for the former, these were limited in number to 512 compared to 170,000 for long cadence. However, even though at launch Kepler had the highest data rate of any NASA mission, [ citation needed ] the 29-minute sums of all 95 million pixels constituted more data than could be stored and sent back to Earth. Therefore, the science team pre-selected the relevant pixels associated with each star of interest, amounting to about 6 percent of the pixels (5.4 megapixels). The data from these pixels was then requantized, compressed and stored, along with other auxiliary data, in the on-board 16 gigabyte solid-state recorder. Data that was stored and downlinked includes science stars, p-mode stars , smear, black level, background and full field-of-view images. [ 1 ] [ 51 ] Primary mirror [ edit ] Comparison of primary mirror sizes for the Kepler telescope and other notable optical telescopes. The Kepler primary mirror is 1.4 meters (4.6 ft) in diameter. Manufactured by glass maker Corning using ultra-low expansion (ULE) glass , the mirror is specifically designed to have a mass only 14% that of a solid mirror of the same size. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] To produce a space telescope system with sufficient sensitivity to detect relatively small planets, as they pass in front of stars, a very high reflectance coating on the primary mirror was required. Using ion assisted evaporation , Surface Optics Corp. applied a protective nine-layer silver coating to enhance reflection and a dielectric interference coating to minimize the formation of color centers and atmospheric moisture absorption. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Photometric performance [ edit ] In terms of photometric performance, Kepler worked well, much better than any Earth-bound telescope, but short of design goals. The objective was a combined differential photometric precision (CDPP) of 20 parts per million (PPM) on a magnitude 12 star for a 6.5-hour integration. This estimate was developed allowing 10 ppm for stellar variability, roughly the value for the Sun. The obtained accuracy for this observation has a wide range, depending on the star and position on the focal plane, with a median of 29 ppm. Most of the additional noise appears to be due to a larger-than-expected variability in the stars themselves (19.5 ppm as opposed to the assumed 10.0 ppm), with the rest due to instrumental noise sources slightly larger than predicted. [ 56 ] [ 48 ] Because decrease in brightness from an Earth-size planet transiting a Sun-like star is so small, only 80 ppm, the increased noise means each individual transit is only a 2.7 σ event, instead of the intended 4 σ. This, in turn, means more transits must be observed to be sure of a detection. Scientific estimates indicated that a mission lasting 7 to 8 years, as opposed to the originally planned 3.5 years, would be needed to find all transiting Earth-sized planets. [ 57 ] On April 4, 2012, the Kepler mission was approved for extension through the fiscal year 2016, [ 20 ] [ 58 ] but this also depended on all remaining reaction wheels staying healthy, which turned out not to be the case (see Reaction wheel issues below). Orbit and orientation [ edit ] Kepler's search volume, in the context of the Milky Way The motion of Kepler relative to Earth, slowly drifting away from Earth in a similar orbit, looking like a spiral over time Kepler orbits the Sun , [ 59 ] [ 60 ] which avoids Earth occultations , stray light, and gravitational perturbations and torques inherent in an Earth orbit. NASA has characterized Kepler's orbit as \"Earth-trailing\". [ 61 ] With an orbital period of 372.5 days, Kepler is slowly falling farther behind Earth (about 16 million miles per annum ). As of May 1, 2018 [update] , the distance to Kepler from Earth was about 0.917 AU (137 million km). [ 3 ] This means that after about 26 years Kepler will reach the other side of the Sun and will get back to the neighborhood of the Earth after 51 years. Until 2013 the photometer pointed to a field in the northern constellations of Cygnus , Lyra and Draco , which is well out of the ecliptic plane, so that sunlight never enters the photometer as the spacecraft orbits. [ 1 ] This is also the direction of the Solar System's motion around the center of the galaxy. Thus, the stars which Kepler observed are roughly the same distance from the Galactic Center as the Solar System , and also close to the galactic plane . This fact is important if position in the galaxy is related to habitability, as suggested by the Rare Earth hypothesis . Orientation is three-axis stabilized by sensing rotations using fine-guidance sensors located on the instrument focal plane (instead of rate sensing gyroscopes, e.g. as used on Hubble ). [ 1 ] and using reaction wheels and hydrazine thrusters [ 62 ] to control the orientation. Animation of Kepler 's trajectory Relative to the Sun Relative to Earth Relative to Sun and Earth Kepler · Earth · Sun Operations [ edit ] Kepler's orbit. The telescope's solar array was adjusted at solstices and equinoxes . Kepler was operated out of Boulder, Colorado , by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) under contract to Ball Aerospace & Technologies . The spacecraft's solar array was rotated to face the Sun at the solstices and equinoxes , so as to optimize the amount of sunlight falling on the solar array and to keep the heat radiator pointing towards deep space. [ 1 ] Together, LASP and Ball Aerospace controlled the spacecraft from a mission operations center located on the research campus of the University of Colorado . LASP performs essential mission planning and the initial collection and distribution of the science data. The mission's initial life-cycle cost was estimated at US$600 million, including funding for 3.5 years of operation. [ 1 ] In 2012, NASA announced that the Kepler mission would be funded until 2016 at a cost of about $20 million per year. [ 20 ] Communications [ edit ] NASA contacted the spacecraft using the X band communication link twice a week for command and status updates. Scientific data are downloaded once a month using the K a band link at a maximum data transfer rate of approximately 550 kB/s . The high gain antenna is not steerable so data collection is interrupted for a day to reorient the whole spacecraft and the high gain antenna for communications to  Earth. [ 1 ] : 16 The Kepler space telescope conducted its own partial analysis on board and only transmitted scientific data deemed necessary to the mission in order to conserve bandwidth. [ 63 ] Data management [ edit ] Science data telemetry collected during mission operations at LASP is sent for processing to the Kepler Data Management Center (DMC) which is located at the Space Telescope Science Institute on the campus of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland . The science data telemetry is decoded and processed into uncalibrated FITS -format science data products by the DMC, which are then passed along to the Science Operations Center (SOC) at NASA Ames Research Center, for calibration and final processing. The SOC at NASA Ames Research Center (ARC) develops and operates the tools needed to process scientific data for use by the Kepler Science Office (SO). Accordingly, the SOC develops the pipeline data processing software based on scientific algorithms developed jointly by the SO and SOC. During operations, the SOC: [ 64 ] Receives uncalibrated pixel data from the DMC Applies the analysis algorithms to produce calibrated pixels and light curves for each star Performs transit searches for detection of planets (threshold-crossing events, or TCEs) Performs data validation of candidate planets by evaluating various data products for consistency as a way to eliminate false positive detections The SOC also evaluates the photometric performance on an ongoing basis and provides the performance metrics to the SO and Mission Management Office. Finally, the SOC develops and maintains the project's scientific databases, including catalogs and processed data. The SOC finally returns calibrated data products and scientific results back to the DMC for long-term archiving, and distribution to astronomers around the world through the Multimission Archive at STScI (MAST). Reaction wheel failures [ edit ] On July 14, 2012, one of the four reaction wheels used for fine pointing of the spacecraft failed. [ 65 ] While Kepler requires only three reaction wheels to accurately aim the telescope, another failure would leave the spacecraft unable to aim at its original field. [ 66 ] After showing some problems in January 2013, a second reaction wheel failed on May 11, 2013, ending Kepler's primary mission. The spacecraft was put into safe mode, then from June to August 2013 a series of engineering tests were done to try to recover either failed wheel. By August 15, 2013, it was decided that the wheels were unrecoverable, [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] and an engineering report was ordered to assess the spacecraft's remaining capabilities. [ 24 ] This effort ultimately led to the \"K2\" follow-on mission observing different fields near the ecliptic. Operational timeline [ edit ] Kepler's launch on March 7, 2009 Interior illustration of Kepler A 2004 illustration of Kepler In January 2006, the project's launch was delayed eight months because of budget cuts and consolidation at NASA. [ 17 ] It was delayed again by four months in March 2006 due to fiscal problems. [ 17 ] At this time, the high-gain antenna was changed from a gimballed design to one fixed to the frame of the spacecraft to reduce cost and complexity, at the cost of one observation day per month. The Kepler observatory was launched on March 7, 2009, at 03:49:57 UTC aboard a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , Florida. [ 2 ] [ 5 ] The launch was a success and all three stages were completed by 04:55 UTC. The cover of the telescope was jettisoned on April 7, 2009, and the first light images were taken on the next day. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] On April 20, 2009, it was announced that the Kepler science team had concluded that further refinement of the focus would dramatically increase the scientific return. [ 69 ] On April 23, 2009, it was announced that the focus had been successfully optimized by moving the primary mirror 40 micrometers (1.6 thousandths of an inch) towards the focal plane and tilting the primary mirror 0.0072 degree. [ 70 ] On May 13, 2009, at 00:01 UTC, Kepler successfully completed its commissioning phase and began its search for planets around other stars. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] On June 19, 2009, the spacecraft successfully sent its first science data to Earth. It was discovered that Kepler had entered safe mode on June 15. A second safe mode event occurred on July 2. In both cases the event was triggered by a processor reset . The spacecraft resumed normal operation on July 3 and the science data that had been collected since June 19 was downlinked that day. [ 73 ] On October 14, 2009, the cause of these safing events was determined to be a low voltage power supply that provides power to the RAD750 processor. [ 74 ] On January 12, 2010, one portion of the focal plane transmitted anomalous data, suggesting a problem with focal plane MOD-3 module, covering two out of Kepler's 42 CCDs . As of October 2010 [update] , the module was described as \"failed\", but the coverage still exceeded the science goals. [ 75 ] Kepler downlinked roughly twelve gigabytes of data [ 76 ] about once per month. [ 77 ] Field of view [ edit ] Diagram of Kepler's investigated area with celestial coordinates Kepler has a fixed field of view (FOV) against the sky. The diagram to the right shows the celestial coordinates and where the detector fields are located, along with the locations of a few bright stars with celestial north at the top left corner. The mission website has a calculator [ 78 ] that will determine if a given object falls in the FOV, and if so, where it will appear in the photo detector output data stream. Data on exoplanet candidates is submitted to the Kepler Follow-up Program , or KFOP, to conduct follow-up observations. The photometer's field of view in the constellations Cygnus , Lyra and Draco Kepler's field of view covers 115 square degrees , around 0.25 percent of the sky, or \"about two scoops of the Big Dipper\". Thus, it would require around 400 Kepler-like telescopes to cover the whole sky. [ 79 ] The Kepler field contains portions of the constellations Cygnus , Lyra , and Draco . The nearest star system in Kepler's field of view is the triple star system Gliese 1245 , 15 light years from the Sun. The brown dwarf WISE J2000+3629, 22.8 ± 1 light years from the Sun is also in the field of view, but is invisible to Kepler due to emitting light primarily in infrared wavelengths. Objectives and methods [ edit ] The scientific objective of the Kepler space telescope was to explore the structure and diversity of planetary systems . [ 80 ] This spacecraft observes a large sample of stars to achieve several key goals: To determine how many Earth-size and larger planets there are in or near the habitable zone (often called \"Goldilocks planets\") [ 81 ] of a wide variety of spectral types of stars. To determine the range of size and shape of the orbits of these planets. To estimate how many planets there are in multiple-star systems. To determine the range of orbit size, brightness, size, mass and density of short-period giant planets. To identify additional members of each discovered planetary system using other techniques. Determine the properties of those stars that harbor planetary systems. Most of the exoplanets previously detected by other projects were giant planets , mostly the size of Jupiter and bigger. Kepler was designed to look for planets 30 to 600 times less massive, closer to the order of Earth's mass (Jupiter is 318 times more massive than Earth). The method used, the transit method , involves observing repeated transit of planets in front of their stars, which causes a slight reduction in the star's apparent magnitude , on the order of 0.01% for an Earth-size planet. The degree of this reduction in brightness can be used to deduce the diameter of the planet, and the interval between transits can be used to deduce the planet's orbital period, from which estimates of its orbital semi-major axis (using Kepler's laws ) and its temperature (using models of stellar radiation) can be calculated. [ citation needed ] The probability of a random planetary orbit being along the line-of-sight to a star is the diameter of the star divided by the diameter of the orbit. [ 82 ] For an Earth-size planet at 1 AU transiting a Sun-like star the probability is 0.47%, or about 1 in 210. [ 82 ] For a planet like Venus orbiting a Sun-like star the probability is slightly higher, at 0.65%; [ 82 ] If the host star has multiple planets, the probability of additional detections is higher than the probability of initial detection assuming planets in a given system tend to orbit in similar planes—an assumption consistent with current models of planetary system formation. [ 82 ] For instance, if a Kepler -like mission conducted by aliens observed Earth transiting the Sun, there is a 7% chance that it would also see Venus transiting. [ 82 ] Kepler's 115 deg 2 field of view gives it a much higher probability of detecting Earth-sized planets than the Hubble Space Telescope , which has a field of view of only 10 sq. arc-minutes . Moreover, Kepler is dedicated to detecting planetary transits, while the Hubble Space Telescope is used to address a wide range of scientific questions, and rarely looks continuously at just one starfield. Of the approximately half-million stars in Kepler's field of view, around 150,000 stars were selected for observation. More than 90,000 are G-type stars on, or near, the main sequence . Thus, Kepler was designed to be sensitive to wavelengths of 400–865 nm where brightness of those stars peaks. Most of the stars observed by Kepler have apparent visual magnitude between 14 and 16 but the brightest observed stars have apparent visual magnitude of 8 or lower. Most of the planet candidates were initially not expected to be confirmed due to being too faint for follow-up observations. [ 83 ] All the selected stars are observed simultaneously, with the spacecraft measuring variations in their brightness every thirty minutes. This provides a better chance for seeing a transit. The mission was designed to maximize the probability of detecting planets orbiting other stars. [ 1 ] [ 84 ] Because Kepler must observe at least three transits to confirm that the dimming of a star was caused by a transiting planet, and because larger planets give a signal that is easier to check, scientists expected the first reported results to be larger Jupiter-size planets in tight orbits. The first of these were reported after only a few months of operation. Smaller planets, and planets farther from their sun would take longer, and discovering planets comparable to Earth were expected to take three years or longer. [ 59 ] Data collected by Kepler is also being used for studying variable stars of various types and performing asteroseismology , [ 85 ] particularly on stars showing solar-like oscillations . [ 86 ] Planet finding process [ edit ] Finding planet candidates [ edit ] Artist's impression of Kepler Once Kepler has collected and sent back the data, raw light curves are constructed. Brightness values are then adjusted to take the brightness variations due to the rotation of the spacecraft into account. The next step is processing (folding) light curves into a more easily observable form and letting software select signals that seem potentially transit-like. At this point, any signal that shows potential transit-like features is called a threshold crossing event. These signals are individually inspected in two inspection rounds, with the first round taking only a few seconds per target. This inspection eliminates erroneously selected non-signals, signals caused by instrumental noise and obvious eclipsing binaries. [ 87 ] Threshold crossing events that pass these tests are called Kepler Objects of Interest (KOI), receive a KOI designation and are archived. KOIs are inspected more thoroughly in a process called dispositioning. Those which pass the dispositioning are called Kepler planet candidates. The KOI archive is not static, meaning that a Kepler candidate could end up in the false-positive list upon further inspection. In turn, KOIs that were mistakenly classified as false positives could end up back in the candidates list. [ 88 ] Not all the planet candidates go through this process. Circumbinary planets do not show strictly periodic transits, and have to be inspected through other methods. In addition, third-party researchers use different data-processing methods, or even search planet candidates from the unprocessed light curve data. As a consequence, those planets may be missing KOI designation. Confirming planet candidates [ edit ] Kepler mission – new exoplanet candidates – as of June 19, 2017. [ 89 ] Once suitable candidates have been found from Kepler data, it is necessary to rule out false positives with follow-up tests. Usually, Kepler candidates are imaged individually with more-advanced ground-based telescopes in order to resolve any background objects which could contaminate the brightness signature of the transit signal. [ 90 ] Another method to rule out planet candidates is astrometry for which Kepler can collect good data even though doing so was not a design goal. While Kepler cannot detect planetary-mass objects with this method, it can be used to determine if the transit was caused by a stellar-mass object. [ 91 ] Through other detection methods [ edit ] There are a few different exoplanet detection methods which help to rule out false positives by giving further proof that a candidate is a real planet. One of the methods, called doppler spectroscopy , requires follow-up observations from ground-based telescopes. This method works well if the planet is massive or is located around a relatively bright star. While current spectrographs are insufficient for confirming planetary candidates with small masses around relatively dim stars, this method can be used to discover additional massive non-transiting planet candidates around targeted stars. [ citation needed ] A photo taken by Kepler with two points of interest outlined. Celestial north is towards the lower left corner. In multiplanetary systems, planets can often be confirmed through transit timing variation by looking at the time between successive transits, which may vary if planets are gravitationally perturbed by each other. This helps to confirm relatively low-mass planets even when the star is relatively distant. Transit timing variations indicate that two or more planets belong to the same planetary system. There are even cases where a non-transiting planet is also discovered in this way. [ 92 ] Circumbinary planets show much larger transit timing variations between transits than planets gravitationally disturbed by other planets. Their transit duration times also vary significantly. Transit timing and duration variations for circumbinary planets are caused by the orbital motion of the host stars, rather than by other planets. [ 93 ] In addition, if the planet is massive enough, it can cause slight variations of the host stars' orbital periods. Despite being harder to find circumbinary planets due to their non-periodic transits, it is much easier to confirm them, as timing patterns of transits cannot be mimicked by an eclipsing binary or a background star system. [ 94 ] In addition to transits, planets orbiting around their stars undergo reflected-light variations—like the Moon , they go through phases from full to new and back again. Because Kepler cannot resolve the planet from the star, it sees only the combined light, and the brightness of the host star seems to change over each orbit in a periodic manner. Although the effect is small—the photometric precision required to see a close-in giant planet is about the same as to detect an Earth-sized planet in transit across a solar-type star—Jupiter-sized planets with an orbital period of a few days or less are detectable by sensitive space telescopes such as Kepler. In the long run, this method may help find more planets than the transit method, because the reflected light variation with orbital phase is largely independent of the planet's orbital inclination, and does not require the planet to pass in front of the disk of the star. In addition, the phase function of a giant planet is also a function of its thermal properties and atmosphere, if any. Therefore, the phase curve may constrain other planetary properties, such as the particle size distribution of the atmospheric particles. [ 95 ] Kepler's photometric precision is often high enough to observe a star's brightness changes caused by doppler beaming or a star's shape deformation by a companion. These can sometimes be used to rule out hot Jupiter candidates as false positives caused by a star or a brown dwarf when these effects are too noticeable. [ 96 ] However, there are some cases where such effects are detected even by planetary-mass companions such as TrES-2b . [ 97 ] Through validation [ edit ] If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with the Spitzer Space Telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. [ 98 ] Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes. In 2014, a new confirmation method called \"validation by multiplicity\" was announced. From the planets previously confirmed through various methods, it was found that planets in most planetary systems orbit in a relatively flat plane, similar to the planets found in the Solar System. This means that if a star has multiple planet candidates, it is very likely a real planetary system. [ 99 ] Transit signals still need to meet several criteria which rule out false-positive scenarios. For instance, it has to have considerable signal-to-noise ratio, it has at least three observed transits, orbital stability of those systems have to be stable and transit curve has to have a shape that partly eclipsing binaries could not mimic the transit signal. In addition, its orbital period needs to be 1.6 days or longer to rule out common false positives caused by eclipsing binaries. [ 100 ] Validation by multiplicity method is very efficient and allows to confirm hundreds of Kepler candidates in a relatively short amount of time. A new validation method using a tool called PASTIS has been developed. It makes it possible to confirm a planet even when only a single candidate transit event for the host star has been detected. A drawback of this tool is that it requires a relatively high signal-to-noise ratio from Kepler data, so it can mainly confirm only larger planets or planets around quiet and relatively bright stars. Currently, the analysis of Kepler candidates through this method is underway. [ 101 ] PASTIS was first successful for validating the planet Kepler-420b. [ 102 ] K2 Extension [ edit ] Predicted structure of the Milky Way overlaid with the original Kepler search space. [ 6 ] In April 2012, an independent panel of senior NASA scientists recommended that the Kepler mission be continued through 2016. According to the senior review, Kepler observations needed to continue until at least 2015 to achieve all the stated scientific goals. [ 103 ] On November 14, 2012, NASA announced the completion of Kepler's primary mission, and the beginning of its extended mission, which ended in 2018 when it ran out of fuel. [ 104 ] Reaction wheel issues [ edit ] In July 2012, one of Kepler's four reaction wheels (wheel 2) failed. [ 24 ] On May 11, 2013, a second wheel (wheel 4) failed, jeopardizing the continuation of the mission, as three wheels are necessary for its planet hunting. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Kepler had not collected science data since May because it was not able to point with sufficient accuracy. [ 105 ] On July 18 and 22 reaction wheels 4 and 2 were tested respectively; wheel 4 only rotated counter-clockwise but wheel 2 ran in both directions, albeit with significantly elevated friction levels. [ 106 ] A further test of wheel 4 on July 25 managed to achieve bi-directional rotation. [ 107 ] Both wheels, however, exhibited too much friction to be useful. [ 26 ] On August 2, NASA put out a call for proposals to use the remaining capabilities of Kepler for other scientific missions. Starting on August 8, a full systems evaluation was conducted. It was determined that wheel 2 could not provide sufficient precision for scientific missions and the spacecraft was returned to a \"rest\" state to conserve fuel. [ 24 ] Wheel 4 was previously ruled out because it exhibited higher friction levels than wheel 2 in previous tests. [ 107 ] Sending astronauts to fix Kepler is not an option because it orbits the Sun and is millions of kilometers from Earth. [ 26 ] On August 15, 2013, NASA announced that Kepler would not continue searching for planets using the transit method after attempts to resolve issues with two of the four reaction wheels failed. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] An engineering report was ordered to assess the spacecraft's capabilities, its two good reaction wheels and its thrusters. [ 24 ] Concurrently, a scientific study was conducted to determine whether enough knowledge can be obtained from Kepler's limited scope to justify its $18 million per year cost. Possible ideas included searching for asteroids and comets, looking for evidence of supernovas, and finding huge exoplanets through gravitational microlensing . [ 26 ] Another proposal was to modify the software on Kepler to compensate for the disabled reaction wheels. Instead of the stars being fixed and stable in Kepler's field of view, they will drift. Proposed software was to track this drift and more or less completely recover the mission goals despite being unable to hold the stars in a fixed view. [ 108 ] Previously collected data continued to be analyzed. [ 109 ] Second Light (K2) [ edit ] In November 2013, a new mission plan named K2 \"Second Light\" was presented for consideration. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 110 ] K2 would involve using Kepler's remaining capability, photometric precision of about 300 parts per million, compared with about 20 parts per million earlier, to collect data for the study of \" supernova explosions , star formation and Solar-System bodies such as asteroids and comets , ... \" and for finding and studying more exoplanets . [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 110 ] In this proposed mission plan, Kepler would search a much larger area in the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun . [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 110 ] Celestial objects, including exoplanets, stars and others, detected by the K2 mission would be associated with the EPIC acronym , standing for Ecliptic Plane Input Catalog . K2 mission timeline (August 8, 2014). [ 111 ] In early 2014, the spacecraft underwent successful testing for the K2 mission. [ 112 ] From March to May 2014, data from a new field called Field 0 was collected as a testing run. [ 113 ] On May 16, 2014, NASA announced the approval of extending the Kepler mission to the K2 mission. [ 32 ] Kepler's photometric precision for the K2 mission was estimated to be 50 ppm on a magnitude 12 star for a 6.5-hour integration. [ 114 ] In February 2014, photometric precision for the K2 mission using two-wheel, fine-point precision operations was measured as 44 ppm on magnitude 12 stars for a 6.5-hour integration. The analysis of these measurements by NASA suggests the K2 photometric precision approaches that of the Kepler archive of three-wheel, fine-point precision data. [ 115 ] On May 29, 2014, campaign fields 0 to 13 were reported and described in detail. [ 116 ] K2 proposal explained (December 11, 2013). [ 30 ] Field 1 of the K2 mission is set towards the Leo - Virgo region of the sky, while Field 2 is towards the \"head\" area of Scorpius and includes two globular clusters, Messier 4 and Messier 80 , [ 117 ] and part of the Scorpius–Centaurus association , which is only about 11 million years old [ 118 ] and 120–140 parsecs (380–470 ly ) distant [ 119 ] with probably over 1,000 members. [ 120 ] On December 18, 2014, NASA announced that the K2 mission had detected its first confirmed exoplanet, a super-Earth named HIP 116454 b . Its signature was found in a set of engineering data meant to prepare the spacecraft for the full K2 mission. Radial velocity follow-up observations were needed as only a single transit of the planet was detected. [ 121 ] During a scheduled contact on April 7, 2016, Kepler was found to be operating in emergency mode, the lowest operational and most fuel intensive mode. Mission operations declared a spacecraft emergency, which afforded them priority access to NASA's Deep Space Network . [ 122 ] [ 123 ] By the evening of April 8 the spacecraft had been upgraded to safe mode, and on April 10 it was placed into point-rest state, [ 124 ] a stable mode which provides normal communication and the lowest fuel burn. [ 122 ] At that time, the cause of the emergency was unknown, but it was not believed that Kepler's reaction wheels or a planned maneuver to support K2 's Campaign 9 were responsible. Operators downloaded and analyzed engineering data from the spacecraft, with the prioritization of returning to normal science operations. [ 122 ] [ 125 ] Kepler was returned to science mode on April 22. [ 126 ] The emergency caused the first half of Campaign 9 to be shortened by two weeks. [ 127 ] In June 2016, NASA announced a K2 mission extension of three additional years, beyond the expected exhaustion of on-board fuel in 2018. [ 128 ] In August 2018, NASA roused the spacecraft from sleep mode, applied a modified configuration to deal with thruster problems that degraded pointing performance, and began collecting scientific data for the 19th observation campaign, finding that the onboard fuel was not yet utterly exhausted. [ 129 ] On October 30, 2018, NASA announced that the spacecraft was out of fuel and its mission was officially ended. [ 130 ] Mission results [ edit ] Detail of Kepler 's image of the investigated area showing open star cluster NGC 6791 . Celestial north is towards the lower left corner. Detail of Kepler 's image of the investigated area. The location of TrES-2b within this image is shown. Celestial north is towards the lower left corner. The Kepler space telescope was in active operation from 2009 through 2013, with the first main results announced on January 4, 2010. As expected, the initial discoveries were all short-period planets. As the mission continued, additional longer-period candidates were found. As of November 2018 [update] , Kepler has discovered 5,011 exoplanet candidates and 2,662 confirmed exoplanets. [ 131 ] [ 132 ] As of August 2022, 2,056 exoplanet candidates remain to be confirmed and 2,711 are now confirmed exoplanets. [ 133 ] 2009 [ edit ] NASA held a press conference to discuss early science results of the Kepler mission on August 6, 2009. [ 134 ] At this press conference, it was revealed that Kepler had confirmed the existence of the previously known transiting exoplanet HAT-P-7b , and was functioning well enough to discover Earth-size planets. [ 135 ] [ 136 ] Because Kepler's detection of planets depends on seeing very small changes in brightness, stars that vary in brightness by themselves ( variable stars ) are not useful in this search. [ 77 ] From the first few months of data, Kepler scientists determined that about 7,500 stars from the initial target list are such variable stars. These were dropped from the target list, and replaced by new candidates. On November 4, 2009, the Kepler project publicly released the light curves of the dropped stars. [ 137 ] The first new planet candidate observed by Kepler was originally marked as a false positive because of uncertainties in the mass of its parent star. However, it was confirmed ten years later and is now designated Kepler-1658b . [ 138 ] [ 139 ] The first six weeks of data revealed five previously unknown planets, all very close to their stars. [ 140 ] [ 141 ] Among the notable results are one of the least dense planets yet found, [ 142 ] two low-mass white dwarfs [ 143 ] that were initially reported as being members of a new class of stellar objects, [ 144 ] and Kepler-16b , a well-characterized planet orbiting a binary star. 2010 [ edit ] On June 15, 2010, the Kepler mission released data on all but 400 of the ~156,000 planetary target stars to the public. 706 targets from this first data set have viable exoplanet candidates, with sizes ranging from as small as Earth to larger than Jupiter. The identity and characteristics of 306 of the 706 targets were given. The released targets included five [ citation needed ] candidate multi-planet systems, including six extra exoplanet candidates. [ 145 ] Only 33.5 days of data were available for most of the candidates. [ 145 ] NASA also announced data for another 400 candidates were being withheld to allow members of the Kepler team to perform follow-up observations. [ 146 ] The data for these candidates was published February 2, 2011. [ 147 ] (See the Kepler results for 2011 below.) The Kepler results, based on the candidates in the list released in 2010, implied that most candidate planets have radii less than half that of Jupiter. The  results also imply that small candidate planets with periods less than thirty days are much more common than large candidate planets with periods less than thirty days and that the ground-based discoveries are sampling the large-size tail of the size distribution. [ 145 ] This contradicted older theories which had suggested small and Earth-size planets would be relatively infrequent. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] Based on extrapolations from the Kepler data, an estimate of around 100 million habitable planets in the Milky Way may be realistic. [ 150 ] Some media reports of the TED talk have led to the misunderstanding that Kepler had actually found these planets. This was clarified in a letter to the Director of the NASA Ames Research Center , for the Kepler Science Council dated August 2, 2010 states, \"Analysis of the current Kepler data does not support the assertion that Kepler has found any Earth-like planets.\" [ 7 ] [ 151 ] [ 152 ] In 2010, Kepler identified two systems containing objects which are smaller and hotter than their parent stars: KOI 74 and KOI 81 . [ 153 ] These objects are probably low-mass white dwarfs produced by previous episodes of mass transfer in their systems. [ 143 ] 2011 [ edit ] A size comparison of the exoplanets Kepler-20e [ 154 ] and Kepler-20f [ 155 ] with Venus and Earth On February 2, 2011, the Kepler team announced the results of analysis of the data taken between 2 May and September 16, 2009. [ 147 ] They found 1235 planetary candidates circling 997 host stars. (The numbers that follow assume the candidates are really planets, though the official papers called them only candidates. Independent analysis indicated that at least 90% of them are real planets and not false positives). [ 156 ] 68 planets were approximately Earth-size, 288 super-Earth -size, 662 Neptune-size, 165 Jupiter-size, and 19 up to twice the size of Jupiter. In contrast to previous work, roughly 74% of the planets are smaller than Neptune, most likely as a result of previous work finding large planets more easily than smaller ones. That February 2, 2011 release of 1235 exoplanet candidates included 54 that may be in the \" habitable zone \", including five less than twice the size of Earth. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] There were previously only two planets thought to be in the \"habitable zone\", so these new findings represent an enormous expansion of the potential number of \"Goldilocks planets\" (planets of the right temperature to support liquid water). [ 159 ] All of the habitable zone candidates found thus far orbit stars significantly smaller and cooler than the Sun (habitable candidates around Sun-like stars will take several additional years to accumulate the three transits required for detection). [ 160 ] Of all the new planet candidates, 68 are 125% of Earth 's size or smaller, or smaller than all previously discovered exoplanets. [ 158 ] \"Earth-size\" and \"super-Earth-size\" is defined as \"less than or equal to 2 Earth radii (Re)\" [(or, Rp ≤ 2.0 Re) – Table 5]. [ 147 ] Six such planet candidates [namely: KOI 326.01 (Rp=0.85), KOI 701.03 (Rp=1.73), KOI 268.01 (Rp=1.75), KOI 1026.01 (Rp=1.77), KOI 854.01 (Rp=1.91), KOI 70.03 (Rp=1.96) – Table 6] [ 147 ] are in the \"habitable zone.\" [ 157 ] A more recent study found that one of these candidates (KOI 326.01) is in fact much larger and hotter than first reported. [ 161 ] The frequency of planet observations was highest for exoplanets two to three times Earth-size, and then declined in inverse proportionality to the area of the planet. The best estimate (as of March 2011), after accounting for observational biases, was: 5.4% of stars host Earth-size candidates, 6.8% host super-Earth-size candidates, 19.3% host Neptune-size candidates, and 2.55% host Jupiter-size or larger candidates. Multi-planet systems are common; 17% of the host stars have multi-candidate systems, and 33.9% of all the planets are in multiple planet systems. [ 162 ] By December 5, 2011, the Kepler team announced that they had discovered 2,326 planetary candidates, of which 207 are similar in size to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger than Jupiter. Compared to the February 2011 figures, the number of Earth-size and super-Earth-size planets increased by 200% and 140% respectively. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars, marking a decrease from the February figure; this was due to the more stringent criteria in use in the December data. [ 163 ] On December 20, 2011, the Kepler team announced the discovery of the first Earth-size exoplanets , Kepler-20e [ 154 ] and Kepler-20f , [ 155 ] orbiting a Sun-like star , Kepler-20 . [ 164 ] Based on Kepler's findings, astronomer Seth Shostak estimated in 2011 that \"within a thousand light-years of Earth\", there are \"at least 30,000\" habitable planets. [ 165 ] Also based on the findings, the Kepler team has estimated that there are \"at least 50 billion planets in the Milky Way\", of which \"at least 500 million\" are in the habitable zone . [ 166 ] In March 2011, astronomers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) reported that about \"1.4 to 2.7 percent\" of all Sun-like stars are expected to have Earth-size planets \"within the habitable zones of their stars\". This means there are \"two billion\" of these \"Earth analogs\" in the Milky Way alone. The JPL astronomers also noted that there are \"50 billion other galaxies\", potentially yielding more than one sextillion \"Earth analog\" planets if all galaxies have similar numbers of planets to the Milky Way. [ 167 ] 2012 [ edit ] In January 2012, an international team of astronomers reported that each star in the Milky Way may host \" on average...at least 1.6 planets \", suggesting that over 160 billion star-bound planets may exist in the Milky Way. [ 168 ] [ 169 ] Kepler also recorded distant stellar super-flares , some of which are 10,000 times more powerful than the 1859 Carrington event . [ 170 ] The superflares may be triggered by close-orbiting Jupiter -sized planets. [ 170 ] The Transit Timing Variation (TTV) technique, which was used to discover Kepler-9d , gained popularity for confirming exoplanet discoveries. [ 171 ] A planet in a system with four stars was also confirmed, the first time such a system had been discovered. [ 172 ] As of 2012 [update] , there were a total of 2,321 candidates . [ 163 ] [ 173 ] [ 174 ] Of these, 207 are similar in size to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger than Jupiter. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars. The Kepler team estimated that 5.4% of all stars host Earth-size planet candidates, and that 17% of all stars have multiple planets. 2013 [ edit ] A chart showing Kepler discoveries, in context of all discovered exoplanets (through 2013), with some transit probabilities indicated for example scenarios. According to a study by Caltech astronomers published in January 2013, the Milky Way contains at least as many planets as it does stars, resulting in 100–400 billion exoplanets . [ 175 ] [ 176 ] The study, based on planets orbiting the star Kepler-32 , suggests that planetary systems may be common around stars in the Milky Way. The discovery of 461 more candidates was announced on January 7, 2013. [ 105 ] The longer Kepler watches, the more planets with long periods it can detect. [ 105 ] Since the last Kepler catalog was released in February 2012, the number of candidates discovered in the Kepler data has increased by 20 percent and now totals 2,740 potential planets orbiting 2,036 stars A candidate, newly announced on January 7, 2013, was Kepler-69c (formerly, KOI-172.02 ), an Earth-size exoplanet orbiting a star similar to the Sun in the habitable zone and possibly habitable. [ 177 ] In April 2013, a white dwarf was discovered bending the light of its companion red dwarf in the KOI-256 star system. [ 178 ] In April 2013, NASA announced the discovery of three new Earth-size exoplanets— Kepler-62e , Kepler-62f , and Kepler-69c —in the habitable zones of their respective host stars, Kepler-62 and Kepler-69 . The new exoplanets are considered prime candidates for possessing liquid water and thus a habitable environment. [ 179 ] [ 180 ] [ 181 ] A more recent analysis has shown that Kepler-69c is likely more analogous to Venus, and thus unlikely to be habitable. [ 182 ] On May 15, 2013, NASA announced the space telescope had been crippled by failure of a reaction wheel that keeps it pointed in the right direction. A second wheel had previously failed, and the telescope required three wheels (out of four total) to be operational for the instrument to function properly. Further testing in July and August determined that while Kepler was capable of using its damaged reaction wheels to prevent itself from entering safe mode and of downlinking previously collected science data it was not capable of collecting further science data as previously configured. [ 183 ] Scientists working on the Kepler project said there was a backlog of data still to be looked at, and that more discoveries would be made in the following couple of years, despite the setback. [ 184 ] Although no new science data from Kepler field had been collected since the problem, an additional sixty-three candidates were announced in July 2013 based on the previously collected observations. [ 185 ] In November 2013, the second Kepler science conference was held. The discoveries included the median size of planet candidates getting smaller compared to early 2013, preliminary results of the discovery of a few circumbinary planets and planets in the habitable zone. [ 186 ] 2014 [ edit ] Histogram of exoplanet discoveries. The yellow shaded bar shows newly announced planets including those verified by the multiplicity technique (February 26, 2014). On February 13, over 530 additional planet candidates were announced residing around single planet systems. Several of them were nearly Earth-sized and located in the habitable zone. This number was further increased by about 400 in June 2014. [ 187 ] On February 26, scientists announced that data from Kepler had confirmed the existence of 715 new exoplanets. A new statistical method of confirmation was used called \"verification by multiplicity\" which is based on how many planets around multiple stars were found to be real planets. This allowed much quicker confirmation of numerous candidates which are part of multiplanetary systems. 95% of the discovered exoplanets were smaller than Neptune and four, including Kepler-296f, were less than 2 1/2 the size of Earth and were in habitable zones where surface temperatures are suitable for liquid water . [ 99 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] In March, a study found that small planets with orbital periods of less than one day are usually accompanied by at least one additional planet with orbital period of 1–50 days. This study also noted that ultra-short period planets are almost always smaller than 2 Earth radii unless it is a misaligned hot Jupiter. [ 191 ] On April 17, the Kepler team announced the discovery of Kepler-186f , the first nearly Earth-sized planet located in the habitable zone. This planet orbits around a red dwarf. [ 192 ] In May 2014, K2 observations fields 0 to 13 were announced and described in detail. [ 116 ] K2 observations began in June 2014. In July 2014, the first discoveries from K2 field data were reported in the form of eclipsing binaries . Discoveries were derived from a Kepler engineering data set which was collected prior to campaign 0 [ 193 ] in preparation to the main K2 mission. [ 194 ] On September 23, 2014, NASA reported that the K2 mission had completed campaign 1, [ 195 ] the first official set of science observations, and that campaign 2 [ 196 ] was underway. [ 197 ] Kepler observed KSN 2011b, a Type Ia supernova , in the process of exploding: before, during and after. [ 198 ] Campaign 3 [ 199 ] lasted from November 14, 2014, to February 6, 2015, and included \"16,375 standard long cadence and 55 standard short cadence targets\". [ 116 ] 2015 [ edit ] This section is in list format but may read better as prose . You can help by converting this section , if appropriate. Editing help is available. ( March 2023 ) In January 2015, the number of confirmed Kepler planets exceeded 1000. At least two ( Kepler-438b and Kepler-442b ) of the discovered planets announced that month were likely rocky and in the habitable zone . [ 40 ] Also in January 2015, NASA reported that five confirmed sub-earth-sized rocky exoplanets , all smaller than the planet Venus , were found orbiting the 11.2 billion year old star Kepler-444 , making this star system, at 80% of the age of the universe , the oldest yet discovered. [ 200 ] [ 201 ] [ 202 ] In April 2015, campaign 4 [ 203 ] was reported to last between February 7, 2015, and April 24, 2015, and to include observations of nearly 16,000 target stars and two notable open star clusters, Pleiades and Hyades. [ 204 ] In May 2015, Kepler observed a newly discovered supernova , KSN 2011b ( Type 1a ), before, during and after explosion. Details of the pre-nova moments may help scientists better understand dark energy . [ 198 ] On July 24, 2015, NASA announced the discovery of Kepler-452b , a confirmed exoplanet that is near-Earth in size and found orbiting the habitable zone of a Sun-like star. [ 205 ] [ 206 ] The seventh Kepler planet candidate catalog was released, containing 4,696 candidates, and increase of 521 candidates since the previous catalog release in January 2015. [ 207 ] [ 208 ] On September 14, 2015, astronomers reported unusual light fluctuations of KIC 8462852 , an F-type main-sequence star in the constellation Cygnus , as detected by Kepler, while searching for exoplanets . Various hypotheses have been presented, including comets , asteroids , and an alien civilization . [ 209 ] [ 210 ] [ 211 ] 2016 [ edit ] By May 10, 2016, the Kepler mission had verified 1,284 new planets. [ 41 ] Based on their size, about 550 could be rocky planets. Nine of these orbit in their stars' habitable zone : Kepler-560b , Kepler-705b , Kepler-1229b , Kepler-1410b , Kepler-1455b , Kepler-1544 b , Kepler-1593b , Kepler-1606b , and Kepler-1638b . [ 41 ] Data releases [ edit ] The Kepler team originally promised to release data within one year of observations. [ 212 ] However, this plan was changed after launch, with data being scheduled for release up to three years after its collection. [ 213 ] This resulted in considerable criticism, [ 214 ] [ 215 ] [ 216 ] [ 217 ] [ 218 ] leading the Kepler science team to release the third quarter of their data one year and nine months after collection. [ 219 ] The data through September 2010 (quarters 4, 5, and 6) was made public in January 2012. [ 220 ] Follow-ups by others [ edit ] Periodically, the Kepler team releases a list of candidates ( Kepler Objects of Interest , or KOIs) to the public. Using this information, a team of astronomers collected radial velocity data using the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph to confirm the existence of the candidate KOI-428b in 2010, later named Kepler-40b . [ 221 ] In 2011, the same team confirmed candidate KOI-423b, later named Kepler-39b . [ 222 ] Citizen scientist participation [ edit ] Since December 2010, Kepler mission data has been used for the Planet Hunters project, which allows volunteers to look for transit events in the light curves of Kepler images to identify planets that computer algorithms might miss. [ 223 ] By June 2011, users had found sixty-nine potential candidates that were previously unrecognized by the Kepler mission team. [ 224 ] The team has plans to publicly credit amateurs who spot such planets. In January 2012, the BBC program Stargazing Live aired a public appeal for volunteers to analyse Planethunters.org data for potential new exoplanets. This led two amateur astronomers—one in Peterborough , England—to discover a new Neptune -sized exoplanet, to be named Threapleton Holmes B. [ 225 ] One hundred thousand other volunteers were also engaged in the search by late January, analyzing over one million Kepler images by early 2012. [ 226 ] One such exoplanet, PH1b (or Kepler-64b from its Kepler designation), was discovered in 2012. A second exoplanet, PH2b (Kepler-86b) was discovered in 2013. In April 2017, ABC Stargazing Live , a variation of BBC Stargazing Live , launched the Zooniverse project \"Exoplanet Explorers\". While Planethunters.org worked with archived data, Exoplanet Explorers used recently downlinked data from the K2 mission. On the first day of the project, 184 transit candidates were identified that passed simple tests. On the second day, the research team identified a star system, later named K2-138 , with a Sun-like star and four super-Earths in a tight orbit. In the end, volunteers helped to identify 90 exoplanet candidates. [ 227 ] [ 228 ] The citizen scientists that helped discover the new star system will be added as co-authors in the research paper when published. [ 229 ] Confirmed exoplanets [ edit ] Main article: List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope Main article: List of planets observed during Kepler's K2 mission See also: List of exoplanetary host stars and List of exoplanets Confirmed small exoplanets in habitable zones ( Kepler-62e , Kepler-62f , Kepler-186f , Kepler-296e , Kepler-296f , Kepler-438b , Kepler-440b , Kepler-442b ). [ 40 ] Exoplanets discovered using Kepler 's data, but confirmed by outside researchers, include Kepler-39b, [ 222 ] Kepler-40b, [ 221 ] Kepler-41b , [ 230 ] Kepler-43b , [ 231 ] Kepler-44b , [ 232 ] Kepler-45b , [ 233 ] as well as the planets orbiting Kepler-223 [ 234 ] and Kepler-42 . [ 235 ] The \"KOI\" acronym indicates that the star is a K epler O bject of I nterest . Kepler Input Catalog [ edit ] Main article: Kepler Input Catalog The Kepler Input Catalog is a publicly searchable database of roughly 13.2 million targets used for the Kepler Spectral Classification Program and the Kepler mission. [ 236 ] [ 237 ] The catalog alone is not used for finding Kepler targets, because only a portion of the listed stars (about one-third of the catalog) can be observed by the spacecraft. [ 236 ] Solar System observations [ edit ] Kepler has been assigned an observatory code ( C55 ) in order to report its astrometric observations of small Solar System bodies to the Minor Planet Center . In 2013 the alternative NEOKepler mission was proposed, a search for near-Earth objects , in particular potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs). Its unique orbit and larger field of view than existing survey telescopes allow it to look for objects inside Earth's orbit. It was predicted a 12-month survey could make a significant contribution to the hunt for PHAs as well as potentially locating targets for NASA's Asteroid Redirect Mission . [ 238 ] Kepler's first discovery in the Solar System, however, was (506121) 2016 BP 81 , a 200-kilometer cold classical Kuiper belt object located beyond the orbit of Neptune . [ 239 ] Retirement [ edit ] Artwork commissioned by NASA to commemorate the retirement of Kepler in October–November 2018. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] On October 30, 2018, NASA announced that the Kepler space telescope, having run out of fuel, and after nine years of service and the discovery of over 2,600 exoplanets , has been officially retired, and will maintain its current, safe orbit, away from Earth. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The spacecraft was deactivated with a \"goodnight\" command sent from the mission's control center at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics on November 15, 2018. [ 240 ] Kepler's retirement coincides with the 388th anniversary of Johannes Kepler 's death in 1630. [ 241 ] See also [ edit ] Kepler-22b , the first exoplanet confirmed by Kepler to have an average orbital distance within its star's habitable zone List of exoplanets discovered using the Kepler spacecraft List of exoplanets List of multiplanetary systems List of stars that dim oddly Hunt for Exomoons with Kepler William J. Borucki , the chief investigator for Kepler NASA Exoplanet Archive , online exoplanet catalog Other space-based exoplanet search projects CHEOPS (since 2019) CoRoT (2006–2012) Gaia (since 2013) PlanetQuest (since 2002) PLATO (2026) TESS (since 2018) Other ground-based exoplanet search projects APF (since 2013) HATNet (since 2001) HARPS (since 2003) NGTS (since 2015) PlanetQuest (since 2002) SuperWASP (since 2002) Notes [ edit ] ^ Aperture of 0.95 m yields a light-gathering area of Pi×(0.95/2) 2 = 0.708 m 2 ; the 42 CCDs each sized 0.050 m × 0.025m yields a total sensor area of 0.0525 m 2 : [ 4 ] ^ This does not include Kepler candidates without a KOI designation, such as circumbinary planets, or candidates found in the Planet Hunters project. References [ edit ] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m \" Kepler : NASA's First Mission Capable of Finding Earth-Size Planets\" (PDF) . NASA . February 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2024 . 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NASA decommissioned the Kepler space telescope last night (Nov. 15), beaming \"goodnight\" commands to the sun-orbiting observatory. [...] The final commands were sent from Kepler's operations center at the University of Colorado Boulder's Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics... ^ Chou, Felicia; Hawkes, Alison; Cofield, Calla (November 16, 2018). \"Kepler Telescope Bids 'Goodnight' with Final Commands\" (Press release). NASA / JPL . 208-266. Archived from the original on April 19, 2024 . Retrieved November 16, 2018 . Coincidentally, Kepler's \"goodnight\" falls on the same date as the 388-year anniversary of the death of its namesake, German astronomer Johannes Kepler... External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kepler (spacecraft) . 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M-MIM2 ( Poisk ) Shijian 11-01 STS-129 ( ExPRESS-1 , ExPRESS-2 ) Kosmos 2455 Intelsat 14 Eutelsat W7 IGS Optical 3 Intelsat 15 December USA-211 Yaogan 7 Kosmos 2456 , Kosmos 2457 , Kosmos 2458 Yaogan 8 , Xi Wang 1 Helios IIB Soyuz TMA-17 DirecTV-12 Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ). Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses). v t e 2018 in space « 2017 2019 » Space probe launches TESS (lunar flyby; Apr 2018) Queqiao (mission to the Moon ; May 2018) InSight / Mars Cube One (mission to Mars ; May 2018) Parker Solar Probe (solar space mission; Aug 2018) BepiColombo (mission to Mercury ; Oct 2018) Chang'e 4 / Yutu-2 (mission to the Moon ; Dec 2018) Impact events 2018 LA Kamchatka meteor Selected NEOs Asteroid close approaches 2010 WC 9 2017 VR 12 2017 YE 5 (585310) 2017 YZ 1 2018 AH 2018 BD 2018 BF 3 2018 CB 2018 CC (276033) 2002 AJ 129 (505657) 2014 SR 339 2018 CF 2 2018 CL 2018 CN 2 2018 CY 2 2018 DV 1 2018 GE 3 2018 PD 20 2018 LF 16 2018 WV 1 (163899) 2003 SD 220 Exoplanets Gliese 1132 c possible exomoon Kepler-1625b I K2-141b K2-146b K2-148b K2-155d K2-229b K2-239b K2-239c K2-239d K2-288Bb EPIC 211945201 b HD 89345 b KELT-21b NGTS-3Ab Discoveries LSPM J0207+3331 VVV-WIT-07 MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1 10 moons of Jupiter 541132 Leleākūhonua (announced) Hyperion proto-supercluster 2MASS J18082002−5104378 Farout ( 2018 VG 18 ) FarFarOut ( 2018 AG 37 first imaged ) AT2018hyz SN 2018cow Novae V357 Muscae (Nova Muscae) V906 Carinae (Nova Carinae) V392 Persei (Nova Persei) Comets C/2017 T1 (Heinze) C/2017 U7 C/2018 C2 (Lemmon) 37P/Forbes 66P/du Toit 64P/Swift–Gehrels 38P/Stephan–Oterma C/2018 F4 (PanSTARRS) C/2018 V1 (Machholz-Fujikawa-Iwamoto) 46P/Wirtanen Space exploration Hayabusa2 (asteroid Ryugu arrival; Jun 2018) Kepler retirement (Oct 2018) InSight (Mars landing; Oct 2018) Dawn retirement (Nov 2018) OSIRIS-REx (asteroid Bennu arrival; Dec 2018) Voyager 2 (enters interstellar space; Dec 2018) New Horizons (encounter with 486958 Arrokoth ; Dec 2018 / Jan 2019) Outer space portal 2017 in outer space — 2018 in outer space — 2019 in outer space Portals : Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Outer space Solar System\n",
      "NASA/ESA/CSA space telescope launched in 2021 James Webb Space Telescope Rendering of the fully deployed James Webb Space Telescope Names Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST; 1996–2002) Mission type Astronomy Operator STScI ( NASA ) [ 1 ] / ESA / CSA COSPAR ID 2021-130A SATCAT no. 50463 Website jwst .nasa .gov webbtelescope .org Mission duration 3 years, 1 month, 14 days (elapsed) 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 years (primary mission) [ 2 ] 10 years (planned) 20 years (expected life) [ 3 ] Spacecraft properties Manufacturer Northrop Grumman Ball Aerospace & Technologies L3Harris [ 1 ] Launch mass 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) [ 4 ] Dimensions 21.197 m × 14.162 m (69.54 ft × 46.46 ft), [ 5 ] sunshield Power 2 kW Start of mission Launch date 25 December 2021 ( 2021-12-25 ) , 12:20 UTC [ 4 ] Rocket Ariane 5 ECA+ (S/N 5113, Flight VA256 ) Launch site Guiana , ELA-3 Contractor Arianespace Entered service 12 July 2022 Orbital parameters Reference system Sun–Earth L 2 orbit Regime Halo orbit Periapsis altitude 250,000 km (160,000 mi) [ 6 ] Apoapsis altitude 832,000 km (517,000 mi) [ 6 ] Period 6 months Main telescope Type Korsch telescope Diameter 6.5 m (21 ft) Focal length 131.4 m (431 ft) Focal ratio f /20.2 Collecting area 25.4 m 2 (273 sq ft) [ 7 ] Wavelengths 0.6–28.5 μm ( orange to mid- infrared ) Transponders Band S-band , telemetry and telecommand K a -band , science data downlink Bandwidth S-band up: 16 kbit/s S-band down: 40 kbit/s K a -band down: up to 28 Mbit/s [ 8 ] Instruments FGS-NIRISS MIRI NIRCam NIRSpec Elements Integrated Science Instrument Module Optical Telescope Element Spacecraft ( Bus and Sunshield ) James Webb Space Telescope mission logo Large Strategic Science Missions Astrophysics Division ← Chandra X-ray Observatory Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope → The James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) is a space telescope designed to conduct infrared astronomy . As the largest telescope in space, it is equipped with high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments, allowing it to view objects too old, distant , or faint for the Hubble Space Telescope . [ 9 ] This enables investigations across many fields of astronomy and cosmology , such as observation of the first stars and the formation of the first galaxies , and detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Although the Webb's mirror diameter is 2.7 times larger than that of the Hubble Space Telescope, it produces images of comparable sharpness because it observes in the longer-wavelength infrared spectrum. The longer the wavelength of the spectrum, the larger the information-gathering surface required (mirrors in the infrared spectrum or antenna area in the millimeter and radio ranges) for an image comparable in clarity to the visible spectrum of the Hubble Space Telescope. The Webb was launched on 25 December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou , French Guiana. In January 2022 it arrived at its destination, a solar orbit near the Sun–Earth L 2 Lagrange point , about 1.5 million kilometers (930,000 mi) from Earth. The telescope's first image was released to the public on 11 July 2022. [ 13 ] The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) led Webb's design and development and partnered with two main agencies: the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland managed telescope development, while the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore on the Homewood Campus of Johns Hopkins University operates Webb. The primary contractor for the project was Northrop Grumman . The telescope is named after James E. Webb , who was the administrator of NASA from 1961 to 1968 during the Mercury , Gemini , and Apollo programs. Webb's primary mirror consists of 18 hexagonal mirror segments made of gold -plated beryllium , which together create a 6.5-meter-diameter (21 ft) mirror, compared with Hubble's 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in). This gives Webb a light-collecting area of about 25 m 2 (270 sq ft), about six times that of Hubble. Unlike Hubble, which observes in the near ultraviolet and visible (0.1 to 0.8 μm ), and near infrared (0.8–2.5 μm) [ 14 ] spectra, Webb observes a lower frequency range, from long-wavelength visible light (red) through mid-infrared (0.6–28.5 μm). [ 15 ] The telescope must be kept extremely cold, below 50 K (−223 °C; −370 °F), so that the infrared light emitted by the telescope itself does not interfere with the collected light. Its five-layer sunshield protects it from warming by the Sun, Earth, and Moon. Initial designs for the telescope, then named the Next Generation Space Telescope, began in 1996. Two concept studies were commissioned in 1999, for a potential launch in 2007 and a US$1 billion budget. The program was plagued with enormous cost overruns and delays. A major redesign was accomplished in 2005, with construction completed in 2016, followed by years of exhaustive testing, at a total cost of US$10 billion. Features [ edit ] The mass of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is about half that of the Hubble Space Telescope . Webb has a 6.5-meter-diameter (21-foot) gold -coated beryllium primary mirror made up of 18 separate hexagonal mirrors. The mirror has a polished area of 26.3 m 2 (283 sq ft), of which 0.9 m 2 (9.7 sq ft) is obscured by the secondary support struts, [ 16 ] giving a total collecting area of 25.4 m 2 (273 sq ft). This is over six times larger than the collecting area of Hubble's 2.4 m (7.9 ft) diameter mirror, which has a collecting area of 4.0 m 2 (43 sq ft). The mirror has a gold coating to provide infrared reflectivity and this is covered by a thin layer of glass for durability. [ 17 ] Webb is designed primarily for near-infrared astronomy , but can also see orange and red visible light, as well as the mid-infrared region, depending on the instrument being used. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] It can detect objects up to 100 times fainter than Hubble can, and objects much earlier in the history of the universe , back to redshift z≈20 (about 180 million years cosmic time after the Big Bang ). [ 18 ] For comparison, the earliest stars are thought to have formed between z≈30 and z≈20 (100–180 million years cosmic time), [ 19 ] and the first galaxies may have formed around redshift z≈15 (about 270 million years cosmic time). Hubble is unable to see further back than very early reionization [ 20 ] [ 21 ] at about z≈11.1 (galaxy GN-z11 , 400 million years cosmic time). [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 18 ] The design emphasizes the near to mid-infrared for several reasons: high-redshift (very early and distant) objects have their visible emissions shifted into the infrared, and therefore their light can be observed only via infrared astronomy ; [ 14 ] infrared light passes more easily through dust clouds than visible light; [ 14 ] colder objects such as debris disks and planets emit most strongly in the infrared; these infrared bands are difficult to study from the ground or by existing space telescopes such as Hubble. Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric absorption (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light Ground-based telescopes must look through Earth's atmosphere , which is opaque in many infrared bands (see figure at right). Even where the atmosphere is transparent, many of the target chemical compounds, such as water, carbon dioxide, and methane, also exist in the Earth's atmosphere, vastly complicating analysis. Existing space telescopes such as Hubble cannot study these bands since their mirrors are insufficiently cool (the Hubble mirror is maintained at about 15 °C [288 K; 59 °F]) which means that the telescope itself radiates strongly in the relevant infrared bands. [ 24 ] Webb can also observe objects in the Solar System at an angle of more than 85° from the Sun and having an apparent angular rate of motion less than 0.03 arc seconds per second. [ a ] This includes Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, their satellites , and comets , asteroids and minor planets at or beyond the orbit of Mars . Webb has the near-IR and mid-IR sensitivity to be able to observe virtually all known Kuiper Belt Objects . [ 19 ] [ 28 ] In addition, it can observe opportunistic and unplanned targets within 48 hours of a decision to do so, such as supernovae and gamma ray bursts . [ 19 ] Three-quarter view of the top Bottom (Sun-facing side) Location and orbit [ edit ] Webb operates in a halo orbit , circling around a point in space known as the Sun–Earth L 2 Lagrange point , approximately 1,500,000 km (930,000 mi) beyond Earth's orbit around the Sun. Its actual position varies between about 250,000 and 832,000 km (155,000–517,000 mi) from L 2 as it orbits, keeping it out of both Earth and Moon's shadow. By way of comparison, Hubble orbits 550 km (340 mi) above Earth's surface, and the Moon is roughly 400,000 km (250,000 mi) from Earth. Objects near this Sun–Earth L 2 point can orbit the Sun in synchrony with the Earth, allowing the telescope to remain at a roughly constant distance [ 29 ] with continuous orientation of its sunshield and equipment bus toward the Sun , Earth and Moon . Combined with its wide shadow-avoiding orbit, the telescope can simultaneously block incoming heat and light from all three of these bodies and avoid even the smallest changes of temperature from Earth and Moon shadows that would affect the structure, yet still maintain uninterrupted solar power and Earth communications on its sun-facing side. This arrangement keeps the temperature of the spacecraft constant and below the 50 K (−223 °C; −370 °F) necessary for faint infrared observations. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Sunshield protection [ edit ] Main article: James Webb Space Telescope sunshield Test unit of the sunshield stacked and expanded at the Northrop Grumman facility in California, 2014 To make observations in the infrared spectrum , Webb must be kept under 50 K (−223.2 °C; −369.7 °F); otherwise, infrared radiation from the telescope itself would overwhelm its instruments. Its large sunshield blocks light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Sun–Earth L 2 keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times. [ 32 ] Its halo orbit around the L 2 point avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays. [ 29 ] The resulting stable temperature for the structures on the dark side is critical to maintaining precise alignment of the primary mirror segments. [ 30 ] The sunshield consists of five layers, each approximately as thin as a human hair. [ 33 ] Each layer is made of Kapton E film, coated with aluminum on both sides. The two outermost layers have an additional coating of doped silicon on the Sun-facing sides, to better reflect the Sun's heat back into space. [ 30 ] Accidental tears of the delicate film structure during deployment testing in 2018 led to further delays to the telescope deployment. [ 34 ] The sunshield was designed to be folded twelve times so that it would fit within the Ariane 5 rocket's payload fairing , which is 4.57 m (15.0 ft) in diameter, and 16.19 m (53.1 ft) long. The shield's fully deployed dimensions were planned as 14.162 m × 21.197 m (46.46 ft × 69.54 ft). [ 35 ] Keeping within the shadow of the sunshield limits the field of regard of Webb at any given time. The telescope can see 40 percent of the sky from any one position, but can see all of the sky over a period of six months. [ 36 ] Optics [ edit ] Main article: Optical Telescope Element Engineers cleaning a test mirror with carbon dioxide snow , 2015 Main mirror assembly from the front with primary mirrors attached, November 2016 Diffraction spikes due to mirror segments and spider color-coded Webb's primary mirror is a 6.5 m (21 ft)-diameter gold-coated beryllium reflector with a collecting area of 25.4 m 2 (273 sq ft). If it had been designed as a single, large mirror, it would have been too large for existing launch vehicles. The mirror is therefore composed of 18 hexagonal segments (a technique pioneered by Guido Horn d'Arturo ), which unfolded after the telescope was launched. Image plane wavefront sensing through phase retrieval is used to position the mirror segments in the correct location using precise actuators . Subsequent to this initial configuration, they only need occasional updates every few days to retain optimal focus. [ 37 ] This is unlike terrestrial telescopes, for example the Keck telescopes , which continually adjust their mirror segments using active optics to overcome the effects of gravitational and wind loading. [ 38 ] The Webb telescope uses 132 small actuation motors to position and adjust the optics. [ 39 ] The actuators can position the mirror with 10 nanometer accuracy. [ 40 ] Webb's optical design is a three-mirror anastigmat , [ 41 ] which makes use of curved secondary and tertiary mirrors to deliver images that are free from optical aberrations over a wide field. The secondary mirror is 0.74 m (2.4 ft) in diameter. In addition, there is a fine steering mirror which can adjust its position many times per second to provide image stabilization . Point light sources in images taken by Webb have six diffraction spikes plus two fainter ones, due to the hexagonal shape of the primary mirror segments. [ 42 ] Scientific instruments [ edit ] NIRCam wrapped up in 2013 The Calibration Assembly, one component of the NIRSpec instrument MIRI The Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) is a framework that provides electrical power, computing resources, cooling capability as well as structural stability to the Webb telescope. It is made with bonded graphite-epoxy composite attached to the underside of Webb's telescope structure. The ISIM holds the four science instruments and a guide camera. [ 43 ] NIRCam (Near Infrared Camera) is an infrared imager which has spectral coverage ranging from the edge of the visible (0.6 μm) through to the near infrared (5 μm). [ 44 ] [ 45 ] There are 10 sensors each of 4 megapixels. NIRCam serves as the observatory's wavefront sensor, which is required for wavefront sensing and control activities, used to align and focus the main mirror segments. NIRCam was built by a team led by the University of Arizona , with principal investigator Marcia J. Rieke . [ 46 ] NIRSpec (Near Infrared Spectrograph) performs spectroscopy over the same wavelength range. It was built by the European Space Agency (ESA) at ESTEC in Noordwijk , Netherlands. The leading development team includes members from Airbus Defence and Space , Ottobrunn and Friedrichshafen, Germany, and the Goddard Space Flight Center ; with Pierre Ferruit ( École normale supérieure de Lyon ) as NIRSpec project scientist. The NIRSpec design provides three observing modes: a low-resolution mode using a prism, an R~1000 multi-object mode, and an R~2700 integral field unit or long-slit spectroscopy mode. Switching of the modes is done by operating a wavelength preselection mechanism called the Filter Wheel Assembly, and selecting a corresponding dispersive element (prism or grating) using the Grating Wheel Assembly mechanism. Both mechanisms are based on the successful ISOPHOT wheel mechanisms of the Infrared Space Observatory . The multi-object mode relies on a complex micro-shutter mechanism to allow for simultaneous observations of hundreds of individual objects anywhere in NIRSpec's field of view. There are two sensors, each of 4 megapixels. [ 47 ] MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) measures the mid-to-long-infrared wavelength range from 5 to 27 μm. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] It contains both a mid-infrared camera and an imaging spectrometer . [ 50 ] MIRI was developed as a collaboration between NASA and a consortium of European countries, and is led by George Rieke (University of Arizona) and Gillian Wright ( UK Astronomy Technology Centre , Edinburgh , Scotland). [ 46 ] The temperature of the MIRI must not exceed 6 K (−267 °C; −449 °F): a helium gas mechanical cooler sited on the warm side of the environmental shield provides this cooling. [ 51 ] FGS/NIRISS (Fine Guidance Sensor and Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph), led by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) under project scientist John Hutchings ( Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Centre ), is used to stabilize the line-of-sight of the observatory during science observations. Measurements by the FGS are used both to control the overall orientation of the spacecraft and to drive the fine steering mirror for image stabilization. The CSA also provided a Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) module for astronomical imaging and spectroscopy in the 0.8 to 5 μm wavelength range, led by principal investigator René Doyon [ 52 ] at the Université de Montréal . [ 46 ] Although they are often referred together as a unit, the NIRISS and FGS serve entirely different purposes, with one being a scientific instrument and the other being a part of the observatory's support infrastructure. [ 53 ] NIRCam and MIRI feature starlight-blocking coronagraphs for observation of faint targets such as extrasolar planets and circumstellar disks very close to bright stars. [ 49 ] Spacecraft bus [ edit ] Main article: Spacecraft bus (James Webb Space Telescope) Diagram of the spacecraft bus . The solar panel is in green and the light purple panels are radiators. The spacecraft bus is the primary support component of the JWST, hosting a multitude of computing, communication, electric power, propulsion, and structural parts. [ 54 ] Along with the sunshield, it forms the spacecraft element of the space telescope . [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The spacecraft bus is on the Sun-facing \"warm\" side of the sunshield and operates at a temperature of about 300 K (27 °C; 80 °F). [ 55 ] The structure of the spacecraft bus has a mass of 350 kg (770 lb), and must support the 6,200 kg (13,700 lb) space telescope. It is made primarily of graphite composite material. [ 57 ] The assembly was completed in California in 2015. It was integrated with the rest of the space telescope leading to its 2021 launch. The spacecraft bus can rotate the telescope with a pointing precision of one arcsecond , and isolates vibration to two milliarcseconds. [ 58 ] Webb has two pairs of rocket engines (one pair for redundancy) to make course corrections on the way to L 2 and for station keeping – maintaining the correct position in the halo orbit. Eight smaller thrusters are used for attitude control – the correct pointing of the spacecraft. [ 59 ] The engines use hydrazine fuel (159 liters or 42 U.S. gallons at launch) and dinitrogen tetroxide as oxidizer (79.5 liters or 21.0 U.S. gallons at launch). [ 60 ] Servicing [ edit ] Webb is not intended to be serviced in space. A crewed mission to repair or upgrade the observatory, as was done for Hubble, would not be possible, [ 61 ] and according to NASA Associate Administrator Thomas Zurbuchen , despite best efforts, an uncrewed remote mission was found to be beyond available technology at the time Webb was designed. [ 62 ] During the long Webb testing period, NASA officials referred to the idea of a servicing mission, but no plans were announced. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] Since the successful launch, NASA has stated that nevertheless limited accommodation was made to facilitate future servicing missions. These accommodations included precise guidance markers in the form of crosses on the surface of Webb, for use by remote servicing missions, as well as refillable fuel tanks, removable heat protectors, and accessible attachment points. [ 65 ] [ 62 ] Software [ edit ] Ilana Dashevsky and Vicki Balzano write that Webb uses a modified version of JavaScript , called Nombas ScriptEase 5.00e, for its operations; it follows the ECMAScript standard and \"allows for a modular design flow, where on-board scripts call lower-level scripts that are defined as functions\". \"The JWST science operations will be driven by ASCII (instead of binary command blocks) on-board scripts, written in a customized version of JavaScript. The script interpreter is run by the flight software, which is written in the programming language C++ . The flight software operates the spacecraft and the science instruments.\" [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Comparison with other telescopes [ edit ] Comparison with the Hubble Space Telescope primary mirror Primary mirror size comparison between Webb and Hubble The desire for a large infrared space telescope traces back decades. In the United States, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (later called the Spitzer Space Telescope ) was planned while the Space Shuttle was in development, and the potential for infrared astronomy was acknowledged at that time. [ 68 ] Unlike ground telescopes, space observatories are free from atmospheric absorption of infrared light. Space observatories opened a \"new sky\" for astronomers. However, there is a challenge involved in the design of infrared telescopes: they need to stay extremely cold, and the longer the wavelength of infrared, the colder they need to be. If not, the background heat of the device itself overwhelms the detectors, making it effectively blind. This can be overcome by careful design. One method is to put the key instruments in a dewar with an extremely cold substance, such as liquid helium . The coolant will slowly vaporize, limiting the lifetime of the instrument from as short as a few months to a few years at most. [ 24 ] It is also possible to maintain a low temperature by designing the spacecraft to enable near-infrared observations without a supply of coolant, as with the extended missions of the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , which operated at reduced capacity after coolant depletion. Another example is Hubble's Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) instrument, which started out using a block of nitrogen ice that depleted after a couple of years, but was then replaced during the STS-109 servicing mission with a cryocooler that worked continuously. The Webb Space Telescope is designed to cool itself without a dewar, using a combination of sunshields and radiators, with the mid-infrared instrument using an additional cryocooler. [ 69 ] Selected space telescopes and instruments [ 70 ] Name Launch year Wavelength (μm) Aperture (m) Cooling Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) 1985 1.7–118 0.15 Helium Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) [ 71 ] 1995 2.5–240 0.60 Helium Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) 1997 0.115–1.03 2.4 Passive Hubble Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) 1997 0.8–2.4 2.4 Nitrogen, later cryocooler Spitzer Space Telescope 2003 3–180 0.85 Helium Hubble Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) 2009 0.2–1.7 2.4 Passive and thermo-electric [ 72 ] Herschel Space Observatory 2009 55–672 3.5 Helium James Webb Space Telescope 2021 0.6–28.5 6.5 Passive and cryocooler (MIRI) Webb's delays and cost increases have been compared to those of its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope . When Hubble formally started in 1972, it had an estimated development cost of US$300 million (equivalent to $2,185,203,000 in 2023), but by the time it was sent into orbit in 1990, the cost was about four times that. In addition, new instruments and servicing missions increased the cost to at least US$9 billion by 2006 [ 73 ] (equivalent to $13,602,509,000 in 2023). Development history [ edit ] For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the James Webb Space Telescope . Background (development to 2003) [ edit ] Major Milestones Year Milestone 1996 Next Generation Space Telescope project first proposed (mirror size: 8 m) 2001 NEXUS Space Telescope, a precursor to the Next Generation Space Telescope, cancelled [ 74 ] 2002 Proposed project renamed James Webb Space Telescope, (mirror size reduced to 6 m) 2003 Northrop Grumman awarded contract to build telescope 2007 Memorandum of Understanding signed between NASA and ESA [ 75 ] 2010 Mission Critical Design Review (MCDR) passed 2011 Proposed cancellation 2016 Final assembly completed 25 December 2021 Launch Discussions of a Hubble follow-on started in the 1980s, but serious planning began in the early 1990s. [ 76 ] The Hi-Z telescope concept was developed between 1989 and 1994: [ 77 ] a fully baffled [ b ] 4 m (13 ft) aperture infrared telescope that would recede to an orbit at 3 Astronomical unit (AU). [ 78 ] This distant orbit would have benefited from reduced light noise from zodiacal dust . [ 78 ] Other early plans called for a NEXUS precursor telescope mission. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Correcting the flawed optics of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in its first years played a significant role in the birth of Webb. [ 81 ] In 1993, NASA conducted STS-61 , the Space Shuttle mission that replaced HST's camera and installed a retrofit for its imaging spectrograph to compensate for the spherical aberration in its primary mirror . The HST & Beyond Committee was formed in 1994 \"to study possible missions and programs for optical-ultraviolet astronomy in space for the first decades of the 21st century.\" [ 82 ] Emboldened by HST's success, its 1996 report explored the concept of a larger and much colder, infrared-sensitive telescope that could reach back in cosmic time to the birth of the first galaxies. This high-priority science goal was beyond the HST's capability because, as a warm telescope, it is blinded by infrared emission from its own optical system. In addition to recommendations to extend the HST mission to 2005 and to develop technologies for finding planets around other stars, NASA embraced the chief recommendation of HST & Beyond [ 83 ] for a large, cold space telescope (radiatively cooled far below 0 °C), and began the planning process for the future Webb telescope. Preparation for the 2000 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey (a literature review produced by the United States National Research Council that includes identifying research priorities and making recommendations for the upcoming decade) included further development of the scientific program for what became known as the Next Generation Space Telescope, [ 84 ] and advancements in relevant technologies by NASA. As it matured, studying the birth of galaxies in the young universe , and searching for planets around other stars – the prime goals coalesced as \"Origins\" by HST & Beyond became prominent. As hoped, the NGST received the highest ranking in the 2000 Decadal Survey. [ 85 ] An administrator of NASA , Dan Goldin , coined the phrase \" faster, better, cheaper \", and opted for the next big paradigm shift for astronomy, namely, breaking the barrier of a single mirror. That meant going from \"eliminate moving parts\" to \"learn to live with moving parts\" (i.e. segmented optics). With the goal to reduce mass density tenfold, silicon carbide with a very thin layer of glass on top was first looked at, but beryllium was selected at the end. [ 76 ] The mid-1990s era of \"faster, better, cheaper\" produced the NGST concept, with an 8 m (26 ft) aperture to be flown to L 2 , roughly estimated to cost US$500 million. [ 86 ] In 1997, NASA worked with the Goddard Space Flight Center, [ 87 ] Ball Aerospace & Technologies , [ 88 ] and TRW [ 89 ] to conduct technical requirement and cost studies of the three different concepts, and in 1999 selected Lockheed Martin [ 90 ] and TRW for preliminary concept studies. [ 91 ] Launch was at that time planned for 2007, but the launch date was pushed back many times (see table further down ). In 2002, the project was renamed after NASA's second administrator (1961–1968), James E. Webb (1906–1992). [ 92 ] Webb led the agency during the Apollo program and established scientific research as a core NASA activity. [ 93 ] In 2003, NASA awarded TRW the US$824.8 million prime contract for Webb. The design called for a de-scoped 6.1 m (20 ft) primary mirror and a launch date of 2010. [ 94 ] Later that year, TRW was acquired by Northrop Grumman in a hostile bid and became Northrop Grumman Space Technology. [ 91 ] Early development and replanning (2003–2007) [ edit ] Early full-scale model on display at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (2005) Development was managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, with John C. Mather as its project scientist. The primary contractor was Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems, responsible for developing and building the spacecraft element, which included the satellite bus , sunshield, Deployable Tower Assembly (DTA) which connects the Optical Telescope Element to the spacecraft bus, and the Mid Boom Assembly (MBA) which helps to deploy the large sunshields on orbit, [ 95 ] while Ball Aerospace & Technologies was subcontracted to develop and build the OTE itself, and the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM). [ 43 ] Cost growth revealed in spring 2005 led to an August 2005 re-planning. [ 96 ] The primary technical outcomes of the re-planning were significant changes in the integration and test plans, a 22-month launch delay (from 2011 to 2013), and elimination of system-level testing for observatory modes at wavelengths shorter than 1.7 μm. Other major features of the observatory were unchanged. Following the re-planning, the project was independently reviewed in April 2006. [ citation needed ] In the 2005 re-plan, the life-cycle cost of the project was estimated at US$4.5 billion. This comprised approximately US$3.5 billion for design, development, launch and commissioning, and approximately US$1.0 billion for ten years of operations. [ 96 ] The ESA agreed in 2004 to contributing about €300 million, including the launch. [ 97 ] The CSA pledged CA$39 million in 2007 [ 98 ] and in 2012 delivered its contributions in equipment to point the telescope and detect atmospheric conditions on distant planets. [ 99 ] Detailed design and construction (2007–2021) [ edit ] A JWST mirror segment, 2010 Mirror segments undergoing cryogenic tests at the X-ray & Cryogenic Facility at Marshall Space Flight Center The assembled telescope following environmental testing In January 2007, nine of the ten technology development items in the project successfully passed a Non-Advocate Review. [ 100 ] These technologies were deemed sufficiently mature to retire significant risks in the project. The remaining technology development item (the MIRI cryocooler) completed its technology maturation milestone in April 2007. This technology review represented the beginning step in the process that ultimately moved the project into its detailed design phase (Phase C). By May 2007, costs were still on target. [ 101 ] In March 2008, the project successfully completed its Preliminary Design Review (PDR). In April 2008, the project passed the Non-Advocate Review. Other passed reviews include the Integrated Science Instrument Module review in March 2009, the Optical Telescope Element review completed in October 2009, and the Sunshield review completed in January 2010. [ 102 ] In April 2010, the telescope passed the technical portion of its Mission Critical Design Review (MCDR). Passing the MCDR signified the integrated observatory can meet all science and engineering requirements for its mission. [ 103 ] The MCDR encompassed all previous design reviews. The project schedule underwent review during the months following the MCDR, in a process called the Independent Comprehensive Review Panel, which led to a re-plan of the mission aiming for a 2015 launch, but as late as 2018. By 2010, cost over-runs were impacting other projects, though Webb itself remained on schedule. [ 104 ] By 2011, the Webb project was in the final design and fabrication phase (Phase C). Assembly of the hexagonal segments of the primary mirror, which was done via robotic arm, began in November 2015 and was completed on 3 February 2016. The secondary mirror was installed on 3 March 2016. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Final construction of the Webb telescope was completed in November 2016, after which extensive testing procedures began. [ 107 ] In March 2018, NASA delayed Webb's launch an additional two years to May 2020 after the telescope's sunshield ripped during a practice deployment and the sunshield's cables did not sufficiently tighten. In June 2018, NASA delayed the launch by an additional 10 months to March 2021, based on the assessment of the independent review board convened after the failed March 2018 test deployment. [ 108 ] The review identified that Webb launch and deployment had 344 potential single-point failures – tasks that had no alternative or means of recovery if unsuccessful, and therefore had to succeed for the telescope to work. [ 109 ] In August 2019, the mechanical integration of the telescope was completed, something that was scheduled to be done 12 years before in 2007. [ 110 ] After construction was completed, Webb underwent final tests at Northrop Grumman's historic Space Park in Redondo Beach, California. [ 111 ] A ship carrying the telescope left California on 26 September 2021, passed through the Panama Canal , and arrived in French Guiana on 12 October 2021. [ 112 ] Cost and schedule issues [ edit ] NASA's lifetime cost for the project is [ when? ] expected to be US$9.7 billion, of which US$8.8 billion was spent on spacecraft design and development and US$861 million is planned to support five years of mission operations. [ 113 ] Representatives from ESA and CSA stated their project contributions amount to approximately €700 million and CA$200 million, respectively. [ 114 ] A study in 1984 by the Space Science Board estimated that to build a next-generation infrared observatory in orbit would cost US$4 billion (US$7B in 2006 dollars, or $10B in 2020 dollars). [ 73 ] While this came close to the final cost of Webb, the first NASA design considered in the late 1990s was more modest, aiming for a $1 billion price tag over 10 years of construction. Over time this design expanded, added funding for contingencies, and had scheduling delays. Progression of estimates for schedule and cost, along with major milestones Year Planned launch Budget plan (billion USD) 1998 2007 [ 115 ] 1 [ 73 ] 2000 2009 [ 48 ] 1.8 [ 73 ] 2002 2010 [ 116 ] 2.5 [ 73 ] 2003 2011 [ 117 ] 2.5 [ 73 ] 2005 2013 3 [ 118 ] 2006 2014 4.5 [ 119 ] 2008: Preliminary Design Review 2008 2014 5.1 [ 120 ] 2010: Critical Design Review 2010 2015 to 2016 6.5 [ 121 ] 2011 2018 8.7 [ 122 ] 2017 2019 [ 123 ] 8.8 2018 2020 [ 124 ] ≥8.8 2019 March 2021 [ 125 ] 9.66 2021 Dec 2021 [ 126 ] 9.70 By 2008, when the project entered preliminary design review and was formally confirmed for construction, over US$1 billion had already been spent on developing the telescope, and the total budget was estimated at US$5 billion (equivalent to $7.8 billion in 2023). [ 127 ] In summer 2010, the mission passed its Critical Design Review (CDR) with excellent grades on all technical matters, but schedule and cost slips at that time prompted Maryland U.S. Senator Barbara Mikulski to call for external review of the project. The Independent Comprehensive Review Panel (ICRP) chaired by J. Casani (JPL) found that the earliest possible launch date was in late 2015 at an extra cost of US$1.5 billion (for a total of US$6.5 billion). They also pointed out that this would have required extra funding in FY2011 and FY2012 and that any later launch date would lead to a higher total cost. [ 121 ] On 6 July 2011, the United States House of Representatives' appropriations committee on Commerce, Justice, and Science moved to cancel the James Webb project by proposing an FY2012 budget that removed US$1.9 billion from NASA's overall budget, of which roughly one quarter was for Webb. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 130 ] [ 131 ] US$3 billion had been spent and 75% of its hardware was in production. [ 132 ] This budget proposal was approved by subcommittee vote the following day. The committee charged that the project was \"billions of dollars over budget and plagued by poor management\". [ 128 ] In response, the American Astronomical Society issued a statement in support of Webb, [ 133 ] as did Senator Mikulski. [ 134 ] A number of editorials supporting Webb appeared in the international press during 2011 as well. [ 128 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ] In November 2011, Congress reversed plans to cancel Webb and instead capped additional funding to complete the project at US$8 billion. [ 137 ] While similar issues had affected other major NASA projects such as the Hubble telescope, some scientists expressed concerns about growing costs and schedule delays for the Webb telescope, worrying that its budget might be competing with those of other space science programs. [ 138 ] [ 139 ] A 2010 Nature article described Webb as \"the telescope that ate astronomy\". [ 140 ] NASA continued to defend the budget and timeline of the program to Congress. [ 139 ] [ 141 ] In 2018, Gregory L. Robinson was appointed as the new director of the Webb program. [ 142 ] Robinson was credited with raising the program's schedule efficiency (how many measures were completed on time) from 50% to 95%. [ 142 ] For his role in improving the performance of the Webb program, Robinsons's supervisor, Thomas Zurbuchen , called him \"the most effective leader of a mission I have ever seen in the history of NASA.\" [ 142 ] In July 2022, after Webb's commissioning process was complete and it began transmitting its first data, Robinson retired following a 33-year career at NASA. [ 143 ] On 27 March 2018, NASA pushed back the launch to May 2020 or later, [ 124 ] with a final cost estimate to come after a new launch window was determined with the ESA. [ 144 ] [ 145 ] [ 146 ] In 2019, its mission cost cap was increased by US$800 million. [ 147 ] After launch windows were paused in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic , [ 148 ] Webb was launched at the end of 2021, with a total cost of just under US$10 billion. No single area drove the cost. For future large telescopes, there are five major areas critical to controlling overall cost: [ 149 ] System Complexity Critical path and overhead Verification challenges Programmatic constraints Early integration and test considerations Partnership [ edit ] NASA, ESA and CSA have collaborated on the telescope since 1996. ESA's participation in construction and launch was approved by its members in 2003 and an agreement was signed between ESA and NASA in 2007. In exchange for full partnership, representation and access to the observatory for its astronomers, ESA is providing the NIRSpec instrument, the Optical Bench Assembly of the MIRI instrument, an Ariane 5 ECA launcher, and manpower to support operations. [ 97 ] [ 150 ] The CSA provided the Fine Guidance Sensor and the Near-Infrared Imager Slitless Spectrograph and manpower to support operations. [ 151 ] Several thousand scientists, engineers, and technicians spanning 15 countries have contributed to the build, test and integration of Webb. [ 152 ] A total of 258 companies, government agencies, and academic institutions participated in the pre-launch project; 142 from the United States, 104 from 12 European countries (including 21 from the U.K., 16 from France, 12 from Germany and 7 international), [ 153 ] and 12 from Canada. [ 152 ] Other countries as NASA partners, such as Australia, were involved in post-launch operation. [ 154 ] Participating countries: Austria Belgium Canada Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States Naming concerns [ edit ] See also: James E. Webb § NASA , and James E. Webb § Legacy In 2002, NASA administrator (2001–2004) Sean O'Keefe made the decision to name the telescope after James E. Webb , the administrator of NASA from 1961 to 1968 during the Mercury , Gemini , and much of the Apollo programs . [ 92 ] [ 93 ] In 2015, concerns were raised around Webb's possible role in the lavender scare , the mid-20th-century persecution by the U.S. government targeting homosexuals in federal employment . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In 2022, NASA released a report of an investigation, [ 157 ] based on an examination of more than 50,000 documents. The report found \"no available evidence directly links Webb to any actions or follow-up related to the firing of individuals for their sexual orientation\", either in his time in the State Department or at NASA. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Mission goals [ edit ] The James Webb Space Telescope has four key goals: to search for light from the first stars and galaxies that formed in the universe after the Big Bang to study galaxy formation and evolution to understand star formation and planet formation to study planetary systems and the origins of life [ 160 ] These goals can be accomplished more effectively by observation in near-infrared light rather than light in the visible part of the spectrum. For this reason, Webb's instruments will not measure visible or ultraviolet light like the Hubble Telescope, but will have a much greater capacity to perform infrared astronomy . Webb will be sensitive to a range of wavelengths from 0.6 to 28 μm (corresponding respectively to orange light and deep infrared radiation at about 100 K or −173 °C). Webb may be used to gather information on the dimming light of star KIC 8462852 , which was discovered in 2015, and has some abnormal light-curve properties. [ 161 ] Additionally, it will be able to tell if an exoplanet has methane in its atmosphere, allowing astronomers to determine whether or not the methane is a biosignature . [ 162 ] [ 163 ] Orbit design [ edit ] Webb is not exactly at the L 2 point, but circles around it in a halo orbit . Alternative Hubble Space Telescope views of the Carina Nebula , comparing ultraviolet and visible (top) and infrared (bottom) astronomy. Far more stars are visible in the latter. Webb orbits the Sun near the second Lagrange point (L 2 ) of the Sun–Earth system, which is 1,500,000 km (930,000 mi) farther from the Sun than the Earth's orbit, and about four times farther than the Moon's orbit. Normally an object circling the Sun farther out than Earth would take longer than one year to complete its orbit. But near the L 2 point, the combined gravitational pull of the Earth and the Sun allow a spacecraft to orbit the Sun in the same time that it takes the Earth. Staying close to Earth allows data rates to be much faster for a given size of antenna. The telescope circles about the Sun–Earth L 2 point in a halo orbit , which is inclined with respect to the ecliptic , has a radius varying between about 250,000 km (160,000 mi) and 832,000 km (517,000 mi), and takes about half a year to complete. [ 29 ] Since L 2 is just an equilibrium point with no gravitational pull, a halo orbit is not an orbit in the usual sense: the spacecraft is actually in orbit around the Sun, and the halo orbit can be thought of as controlled drifting to remain in the vicinity of the L 2 point. [ 164 ] This requires some station-keeping : around 2.5 m/s per year [ 165 ] from the total ∆ v budget of 93 m/s . [ 166 ] : 10 Two sets of thrusters constitute the observatory's propulsion system. [ 167 ] Because the thrusters are located solely on the Sun-facing side of the observatory, all station-keeping operations are designed to slightly undershoot the required amount of thrust in order to avoid pushing Webb beyond the semi-stable L 2 point, a situation which would be unrecoverable. Randy Kimble, the Integration and Test Project Scientist for the JWST, compared the precise station-keeping of Webb to \" Sisyphus [...] rolling this rock up the gentle slope near the top of the hill – we never want it to roll over the crest and get away from him\". [ 168 ] Animation of James Webb Space Telescope trajectory Top view Side view Side view from the Sun James Webb Space Telescope · Earth · L2 point Infrared astronomy [ edit ] Infrared observations can see objects hidden in visible light, such as the HUDF-JD2 shown here. Atmospheric windows in the infrared: Much of this type of light is blocked when viewed from the Earth's surface. It would be like looking at a rainbow but only seeing one color. Webb is the formal successor to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and since its primary emphasis is on infrared astronomy , it is also a successor to the Spitzer Space Telescope . Webb will far surpass both those telescopes, being able to see many more and much older stars and galaxies. [ 169 ] Observing in the infrared spectrum is a key technique for achieving this, because of cosmological redshift , and because it better penetrates obscuring dust and gas. This allows observation of dimmer, cooler objects. Since water vapor and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere strongly absorbs most infrared, ground-based infrared astronomy is limited to narrow wavelength ranges where the atmosphere absorbs less strongly. Additionally, the atmosphere itself radiates in the infrared spectrum, often overwhelming light from the object being observed. This makes a space telescope preferable for infrared observation. [ 170 ] The more distant an object is, the younger it appears; its light has taken longer to reach human observers. Because the universe is expanding , as the light travels it becomes red-shifted, and objects at extreme distances are therefore easier to see if viewed in the infrared. [ 171 ] Webb's infrared capabilities are expected to let it see back in time to the first galaxies forming just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang. [ 172 ] Infrared radiation can pass more freely through regions of cosmic dust that scatter visible light. Observations in infrared allow the study of objects and regions of space which would be obscured by gas and dust in the visible spectrum , [ 171 ] such as the molecular clouds where stars are born, the circumstellar disks that give rise to planets, and the cores of active galaxies . [ 171 ] Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by Planck's law . As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. [ 171 ] This includes the clouds of the interstellar medium , brown dwarfs , planets both in our own and other solar systems, comets , and Kuiper belt objects that will be observed with the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI). [ 48 ] [ 172 ] Some of the missions in infrared astronomy that impacted Webb development were Spitzer and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). [ 173 ] Spitzer showed the importance of mid-infrared, which is helpful for tasks such as observing dust disks around stars. [ 173 ] Also, the WMAP probe showed the universe was \"lit up\" at redshift 17, further underscoring the importance of the mid-infrared. [ 173 ] Both these missions were launched in the early 2000s, in time to influence Webb development. [ 173 ] Ground support and operations [ edit ] The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), in Baltimore, Maryland , on the Homewood Campus of Johns Hopkins University , was selected in 2003 as the Science and Operations Center (S&OC) for Webb with an initial budget of US$162.2 million intended to support operations through the first year after launch. [ 174 ] In this capacity, STScI was to be responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and delivery of data products to the astronomical community. Data was to be transmitted from Webb to the ground via the NASA Deep Space Network , processed and calibrated at STScI, and then distributed online to astronomers worldwide. Similar to how Hubble is operated, anyone, anywhere in the world, will be allowed to submit proposals for observations. Each year several committees of astronomers will peer review the submitted proposals to select the projects to observe in the coming year. The authors of the chosen proposals will typically have one year of private access to the new observations, after which the data will become publicly available for download by anyone from the online archive at STScI. [ citation needed ] The bandwidth and digital throughput of the satellite is designed to operate at 458 gigabits of data per day for the length of the mission (equivalent to a sustained rate of 5.42 Mbps ). [ 39 ] Most of the data processing on the telescope is done by conventional single-board computers. [ 175 ] The digitization of the analog data from the instruments is performed by the custom SIDECAR ASIC (System for Image Digitization, Enhancement, Control And Retrieval Application Specific Integrated Circuit ). NASA stated that the SIDECAR ASIC will include all the functions of a 9.1 kg (20 lb) instrument box in a 3 cm (1.2 in) package and consume only 11 milliwatts of power. [ 176 ] Since this conversion must be done close to the detectors, on the cold side of the telescope, the low power dissipation is crucial for maintaining the low temperature required for optimal operation of Webb. [ 176 ] The telescope is equipped with a solid-state drive (SSD) with a capacity of 68 GB, used as temporary storage for data collected from its scientific instruments. By the end of the 10-year mission, the usable capacity of the drive is expected to decrease to 60 GB due to the effects of radiation and read/write operations. [ 177 ] Micrometeoroid strike [ edit ] The C3 [ c ] mirror segment suffered a micrometeoroid strike from a large dust mote-sized particle between 23 and 25 May, the fifth and largest strike since launch, reported 8 June 2022, which required engineers to compensate for the strike using a mirror actuator . [ 179 ] Despite the strike, a NASA characterization report states \"all JWST observing modes have been reviewed and confirmed to be ready for science use\" as of July 10, 2022. [ 180 ] From launch through commissioning [ edit ] Main article: Launch and commissioning of the James Webb Space Telescope Launch [ edit ] Main article: Ariane flight VA256 The launch (designated Ariane flight VA256 ) took place as scheduled at 12:20 UTC on 25 December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket that lifted off from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana . [ 181 ] [ 182 ] The telescope was confirmed to be receiving power, starting a two-week deployment phase of its parts [ 183 ] and traveling to its target destination. [ 184 ] [ 185 ] [ 186 ] The telescope was released from the upper stage 27 minutes 7 seconds after launch, beginning a 30-day adjustment to place the telescope in a Lissajous orbit [ 187 ] around the L2 Lagrange point . The telescope was launched with slightly less speed than needed to reach its final orbit, and slowed down as it travelled away from Earth, in order to reach L 2 with only the velocity needed to enter its orbit there. The telescope reached L 2 on 24 January 2022. The flight included three planned course corrections to adjust its speed and direction. This is because the observatory could recover from underthrust (going too slowly), but could not recover from overthrust (going too fast) – to protect highly temperature-sensitive instruments, the sunshield must remain between telescope and Sun, so the spacecraft could not turn around or use its thrusters to slow down. [ 188 ] An L 2 orbit is unstable , so JWST needs to use propellant to maintain its halo orbit around L2 (known as station-keeping ) to prevent the telescope from drifting away from its orbital position. [ 189 ] It was designed to carry enough propellant for 10 years, [ 190 ] but the precision of the Ariane 5 launch and the first midcourse correction were credited with saving enough onboard fuel that JWST may be able to maintain its orbit for around 20 years instead. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] [ 193 ] Space.com called the launch \"flawless\". [ 194 ] Diagram of Webb inside Ariane 5 Ariane 5 and Webb at the ELA-3 launch pad Ariane 5 containing the James Webb Space Telescope lifting-off from the launch pad Ariane 5 containing Webb moments after lift-off Webb as seen from the ESC-D Cryotechnic upper stage shortly after separation, approximately 29 minutes after launch. Part of the Earth with the Gulf of Aden is visible in the background of the image. [ 195 ] Transit and structural deployment [ edit ] Structural deployment timeline [ 50 ] Webb was released from the rocket upper stage 27 minutes after a flawless launch. [ 181 ] [ 196 ] Starting 31 minutes after launch, and continuing for about 13 days, Webb began the process of deploying its solar array, antenna, sunshield, and mirrors. [ 197 ] Nearly all deployment actions are commanded by the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore , Maryland, except for two early automatic steps, solar panel unfolding and communication antenna deployment. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] The mission was designed to give ground controllers flexibility to change or modify the deployment sequence in case of problems. [ 200 ] Structural deployment sequence At 7:50 p.m. EST on 25 December 2021, about 12 hours after launch, the telescope's pair of primary rockets began firing for 65 minutes to make the first of three planned mid-course corrections. [ 201 ] On day two, the high gain communication antenna deployed automatically. [ 200 ] On 27 December 2021, at 60 hours after launch, Webb's rockets fired for nine minutes and 27 seconds to make the second of three mid-course corrections for the telescope to arrive at its L 2 destination. [ 202 ] On 28 December 2021, three days after launch, mission controllers began the multi-day deployment of Webb's all-important sunshield. On 30 December 2021, controllers successfully completed two more steps in unpacking the observatory. First, commands deployed the aft \"momentum flap\", a device that provides balance against solar pressure on the sunshield, saving fuel by reducing the need for thruster firing to maintain Webb's orientation. [ 203 ] On 31 December 2021, the ground team extended the two telescoping \"mid booms\" from the left and right sides of the observatory. [ 204 ] The left side deployed in 3 hours and 19 minutes; the right side took 3 hours and 42 minutes. [ 205 ] [ 204 ] Commands to separate and tension the membranes followed between 3 and 4 January and were successful. [ 204 ] On 5 January 2022, mission control successfully deployed the telescope's secondary mirror, which locked itself into place to a tolerance of about one and a half millimeters. [ 206 ] The last step of structural deployment was to unfold the wings of the primary mirror. Each panel consists of three primary mirror segments and had to be folded to allow the space telescope to be installed in the fairing of the Ariane rocket for the launch of the telescope. On 7 January 2022, NASA deployed and locked in place the port-side wing, [ 207 ] and on 8 January, the starboard-side mirror wing. This successfully completed the structural deployment of the observatory. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] On 24 January 2022, at 2:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, [ 211 ] nearly a month after launch, a third and final course correction took place, inserting Webb into its planned halo orbit around the Sun–Earth L 2 point. [ 212 ] [ 213 ] The MIRI instrument has four observing modes – imaging, low-resolution spectroscopy, medium-resolution spectroscopy and coronagraphic imaging. \"On Aug. 24, a mechanism that supports medium-resolution spectroscopy (MRS), exhibited what appears to be increased friction during setup for a science observation. This mechanism is a grating wheel that allows scientists to select between short, medium, and longer wavelengths when making observations using the MRS mode,\" said NASA in a press statement. [ 214 ] Animation of Webb's halo orbit Commissioning and testing [ edit ] On 12 January 2022, while still in transit, mirror alignment began. The primary mirror segments and secondary mirror were moved away from their protective launch positions. This took about 10 days, because the 132 [ 215 ] actuator motors are designed to fine-tune the mirror positions at microscopic accuracy (10 nanometer increments) and must each move over 1.2 million increments (12.5 mm) during initial alignment. [ 216 ] [ 40 ] Mirror alignment requires each of the 18 mirror segments, and the secondary mirror, to be positioned to within 50 nanometers. NASA compares the required accuracy by analogy: \"If the Webb primary mirror were the size of the United States, each [mirror] segment would be the size of Texas, and the team would need to line the height of those Texas-sized segments up with each other to an accuracy of about 1.5 inches\". [ 217 ] James Webb Space Telescope Mirror alignment animations Segment image identification. 18 mirror segments are moved to determine which segment creates which segment image. After matching the mirror segments to their respective images, the mirrors are tilted to bring all the images near a common point for further analysis. Segment alignment begins by defocusing the segment images by moving the secondary mirror slightly. Mathematical analysis, called phase retrieval, is applied to the defocused images to determine the precise positioning errors of the segments. Adjustments of the segments then result in 18 well-corrected \"telescopes\". However, the segments still do not work together as a single mirror. Image stacking. To put all of the light in a single place, each segment image must be stacked on top of one another. In the image stacking step, the individual segment images are moved so that they fall precisely at the center of the field to produce one unified image. This process prepares the telescope for coarse phasing. Telescope alignment over instrument fields of view. After fine phasing, the telescope is well aligned at one place in the NIRCam field of view. Next the alignment must be extended to the rest of the instruments. Mirror alignment was a complex operation split into seven phases, that had been repeatedly rehearsed using a 1:6 scale model of the telescope. [ 217 ] Once the mirrors reached 120 K (−153 °C; −244 °F), [ 218 ] NIRCam targeted the 6th magnitude star HD 84406 in Ursa Major . [ d ] [ 220 ] [ 221 ] To do this, NIRCam took 1560 images of the sky and used these wide-ranging images to determine where in the sky each segment of the main mirror initially pointed. [ 222 ] At first, the individual primary mirror segments were greatly misaligned, so the image contained 18 separate, blurry, images of the star field, each containing an image of the target star. The 18 images of HD 84406 are matched to their respective mirror segments, and the 18 segments are brought into approximate alignment centered on the star (\"Segment Image Identification\"). Each segment was then individually corrected of its major focusing errors, using a technique called phase retrieval , resulting in 18 separate good quality images from the 18 mirror segments (\"Segment Alignment\"). The 18 images from each segment, were then moved so they precisely overlap to create a single image (\"Image Stacking\"). [ 217 ] With the mirrors positioned for almost correct images, they had to be fine tuned to their operational accuracy of 50 nanometers, less than one wavelength of the light that will be detected. A technique called dispersed fringe sensing was used to compare images from 20 pairings of mirrors, allowing most of the errors to be corrected (\"Coarse Phasing\"), and then introduced light defocus to each segment's image, allowing detection and correction of almost all remaining errors (\"Fine Phasing\"). These two processes were repeated three times, and Fine Phasing will be routinely checked throughout the telescope's operation. After three rounds of Coarse and Fine Phasing, the telescope was well aligned at one place in the NIRCam field of view. Measurements will be made at various points in the captured image, across all instruments, and corrections calculated from the detected variations in intensity, giving a well-aligned outcome across all instruments (\"Telescope Alignment Over Instrument Fields of View\"). Finally, a last round of Fine Phasing and checks of image quality on all instruments was performed, to ensure that any small residual errors remaining from the previous steps, were corrected (\"Iterate Alignment for Final Correction\"). The telescope's mirror segments were then aligned and able to capture precise focused images. [ 217 ] In preparation for alignment, NASA announced at 19:28 UTC on 3 February 2022, that NIRCam had detected the telescope's first photons (although not yet complete images). [ 217 ] [ 223 ] On 11 February 2022, NASA announced the telescope had almost completed phase 1 of alignment, with every segment of its primary mirror having located and imaged the target star HD 84406, and all segments brought into approximate alignment. [ 222 ] Phase 1 alignment was completed on 18 February 2022, [ 224 ] and a week later, phases 2 and 3 were also completed. [ 225 ] This meant the 18 segments were working in unison, however until all 7 phases are complete, the segments were still acting as 18 smaller telescopes rather than one larger one. [ 225 ] At the same time as the primary mirror was being commissioned, hundreds of other instrument commissioning and calibration tasks were also ongoing. [ 226 ] Phase 1 interim image, annotated with the related mirror segments that took each image Phase 1 annotated completion image of HD 84406 Phase 2 completion, showing \"before and after\" effects of segment alignment Phase 3 completion, showing 18 segments \"stacked\" as a single image of HD 84406 Star 2MASS J17554042+6551277 [ e ] captured by NIRCam instrument A \"selfie\" taken by the NIRCam during the alignment process Image comparison between \"old\" Spitzer and new Webb [ 228 ] Alignment of the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope's sensors [ 229 ] Webb's Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) [ 230 ] Allocation of observation time [ edit ] Webb observing time is allocated through a General Observers (GO) program, a Guaranteed Time Observations (GTO) program, and a Director's Discretionary Early Release Science (DD-ERS) program. [ 231 ] The GTO program provides guaranteed observing time for scientists who developed hardware and software components for the observatory. The GO program provides all astronomers the opportunity to apply for observing time and will represent the bulk of the observing time. GO programs are selected through peer review by a Time Allocation Committee (TAC), similar to the proposal review process used for the Hubble Space Telescope. Early Release Science program [ edit ] In November 2017, the Space Telescope Science Institute announced the selection of 13 Director's Discretionary Early Release Science (DD-ERS) programs, chosen through a competitive proposal process. [ 232 ] [ 233 ] The observations for these programs – Early Release Observations (ERO) [ 234 ] [ 235 ] – were to be obtained during the first five months of Webb science operations after the end of the commissioning period. A total of 460 hours of observing time was awarded to these 13 programs, which span science topics including the Solar System , exoplanets , stars and star formation , nearby and distant galaxies , gravitational lenses , and quasars . These 13 ERS programs were to use a total of 242.8 hours of observing time on the telescope (not including Webb observing overheads and slew time). Early Release Science programs Name Principal Investigator Category Observation time (hours) Radiative Feedback from Massive Stars as Traced by Multiband Imaging and Spectroscopic Mosaics Olivier Berné [ fr ] Stellar Physics 8.3 [ 236 ] IceAge: Chemical Evolution of Ices during Star Formation Melissa McClure Stellar Physics 13.4 [ 237 ] Through the Looking GLASS: A JWST Exploration of Galaxy Formation and Evolution from Cosmic Dawn to Present Day Tommaso Treu Galaxies and the IGM 24.3 [ 238 ] A JWST Study of the Starburst-AGN Connection in Merging LIRGs Lee Armus Galaxies and the IGM 8.7 [ 239 ] The Resolved Stellar Populations Early Release Science Program Daniel Weisz Stellar Populations 20.3 [ 240 ] Q-3D: Imaging Spectroscopy of Quasar Hosts with JWST Analyzed with a Powerful New PSF Decomposition and Spectral Analysis Package Dominika Wylezalek Massive Black Holes and their Galaxies 17.4 [ 241 ] The Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (CEERS) Survey Steven Finkelstein Galaxies and the IGM 36.6 [ 242 ] Establishing Extreme Dynamic Range with JWST: Decoding Smoke Signals in the Glare of a Wolf-Rayet Binary Ryan Lau Stellar Physics 6.5 [ 243 ] TEMPLATES: Targeting Extremely Magnified Panchromatic Lensed Arcs and Their Extended Star Formation Jane Rigby Galaxies and the IGM 26.0 [ 244 ] Nuclear Dynamics of a Nearby Seyfert with NIRSpec Integral Field Spectroscopy Misty Bentz Massive Black Holes and their Galaxies 1.5 [ 245 ] The Transiting Exoplanet Community Early Release Science Program Natalie Batalha Planets and Planet Formation 52.1 [ 246 ] ERS observations of the Jovian System as a Demonstration of JWST's Capabilities for Solar System Science Imke de Pater Solar System 9.3 [ 247 ] High Contrast Imaging of Exoplanets and Exoplanetary Systems with JWST Sasha Hinkley Planets and Planet Formation 18.4 [ 248 ] General Observer Program [ edit ] For GO Cycle 1 there were 6,000 hours of observation time available to allocate, and 1,173 proposals were submitted requesting a total of 24,500 hours of observation time. [ 249 ] Selection of Cycle 1 GO programs was announced on 30 March 2021, with 266 programs approved. These included 13 large programs and treasury programs producing data for public access. [ 250 ] The Cycle 2 GO program was announced on May 10, 2023. [ 251 ] Webb science observations are nominally scheduled in weekly increments. The observation plan for every week is published on Mondays by the Space Telescope Science Institute. [ 252 ] In Cycle 4 the telescope showed its continued popularity in the astronomy community by garnering 2,377 proposals for 78,000 hours of observing time, nine times more than the available amount. [ 253 ] Scientific results [ edit ] The JWST completed its commissioning and was ready to begin full scientific operations on 11 July 2022. [ 254 ] With some exceptions, most experiment data is kept private for one year for the exclusive use of scientists running that particular experiment, and then the raw data will be released to the public. [ 255 ] Hubble (2017) compared to Webb (2022) [ 256 ] [ 257 ] Deep Field – Galaxy cluster SMACS J0723.3-7327 [ 258 ] [ 259 ] [ 260 ] [ 261 ] [ 228 ] JWST observations substantially advanced understanding of exoplanets, the first billion years of the universe, [ 262 ] and many other astrophysical and cosmological phenomena. First full-color images [ edit ] The first full-color images and spectroscopic data were released on 12 July 2022, which also marked the official beginning of Webb's general science operations. U.S. President Joe Biden revealed the first image, Webb's First Deep Field , on 11 July 2022. [ 258 ] [ 259 ] Additional releases around this time include: [ 263 ] [ 264 ] [ 265 ] Carina Nebula – young, star-forming region called NGC 3324 about 8,500 light-years from Earth, described by NASA as \"Cosmic Cliffs\". WASP-96b – including an analysis of atmosphere with evidence of water around a giant gas planet orbiting a distant star 1120 light-years from Earth. Southern Ring Nebula – clouds of gas and dust expelled by a dying star 2,500 light-years from Earth. Stephan's Quintet – a visual display of five galaxies with colliding gas and dust clouds creating new stars; four central galaxies are 290 million light-years from Earth. SMACS J0723.3-7327 – a galaxy cluster at redshift 0.39, with distant background galaxies whose images are distorted and magnified due to gravitational lensing by the cluster. This image has been called Webb's First Deep Field . It was later discovered that in this picture the JWST had also revealed three ancient galaxies that existed shortly after the Big Bang. Its images of these distant galaxies are views of the universe 13.1 billion years ago. [ 264 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] On 14 July 2022, NASA presented images of Jupiter and related areas by the JWST, including infrared views. [ 268 ] In a preprint released around the same time, NASA, ESA and CSA scientists stated that \"almost across the board, the science performance of JWST is better than expected\". The document described a series of observations during the commissioning, when the instruments captured spectra of transiting exoplanets with a precision better than 1000 ppm per data point, and tracked moving objects with speeds up to 67 milliarcseconds/second, more than twice as fast as the requirement. [ a ] It also obtained the spectra of hundreds of stars simultaneously in a dense field towards the Milky Way 's Galactic Center . Other targets included: [ 26 ] Moving targets: Jupiter's rings and moons (particularly Europa , Thebe and Metis ), asteroids 2516 Roman , 118 Peitho , 6481 Tenzing , 1773 Rumpelstilz , 216 Kleopatra , 2035 Stearns , 4015 Wilson-Harrington and 2004 JX 20 NIRCam grism time-series, NIRISS SOSS and NIRSpec BOTS mode: the Jupiter-sized planet HAT-P-14b NIRISS aperture masking interferometry (AMI): A clear detection of the very low-mass companion star AB Doradus C, which had a separation of only 0.3 arcseconds to the primary. This observation was the first demonstration of AMI in space. MIRI low-resolution spectroscopy (LRS): a hot super-Earth planet L 168-9 b (TOI-134) around a bright M-dwarf star ( red dwarf star) [ 269 ] Bright early galaxies [ edit ] Within two weeks of the first Webb images, several preprint papers described a wide range of high redshift and very luminous (presumably large) galaxies believed to date from 235 million years (z=16.7) to 280 million years after the Big Bang, far earlier than previously known. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] On 17 August 2022, NASA released a large mosaic image of 690 individual frames taken by the NIRCam on Webb of numerous very early galaxies. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Some early galaxies observed by Webb like CEERS-93316 , which has an estimated redshift of approximately z=16.7 corresponding to 235.8 million years after the Big Bang, are high redshift galaxy candidates. [ 272 ] [ 273 ] In September 2022, primordial black holes were proposed as explaining these unexpectedly large and early galaxies. [ 274 ] [ 275 ] [ 276 ] In May 2024, the JWST identified the most distant known galaxy, JADES-GS-z14-0, [ 277 ] seen just 290 million years after the Big Bang, corresponding to a redshift of 14.32. Part of the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES), this discovery highlights a galaxy significantly more luminous and massive than expected for such an early period. Detailed analysis using JWST's NIRSpec and MIRI instruments revealed this galaxy's remarkable properties, including its significant size and dust content, challenging current models of early galaxy formation. [ 277 ] Subsequent noteworthy observations and interpretations [ edit ] In June 2023 detection of organic molecules 12 billion light-years away in a galaxy called SPT0418-47 using the Webb telescope was announced. [ 278 ] On 12 July 2023, NASA celebrated the first year of operations with the release of Webb's image of a small star-forming region in the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex , 390 light years away. [ 279 ] In September 2023, two astrophysicists questioned the accepted Standard Model of Cosmology , based on the latest JWST studies. [ 280 ] In December 2023, NASA released Christmas holiday-related images by JWST, including the Christmas Tree Galaxy Cluster and others. [ 281 ] In May 2024, the JWST detected the farthest known black hole merger. [ 282 ] Occurring within the galaxy system ZS7, 740 million years after the Big Bang, this discovery suggests a fast growth rate for black holes through mergers, even in the young Universe. Gallery [ edit ] First images by the James Webb Space Telescope – released 12 July 2022 Cosmic Cliffs of Carina Nebula ( NGC 3324 ) (NIRCam) Carina Nebula ( NGC 3324 ) (MIRI) Southern Ring Nebula ( NGC 3132 ; Left: NIRCam; Right: MIRI) Webb's First Deep Field ( SMACS 0723 ; Left: MIRI ; Right: NIRCam ) Stephan's Quintet (NIRCam/MIRI composite) Spectrum of WASP-96b Media related to Images by the James Webb Space Telescope at Wikimedia Commons See also [ edit ] Collier Trophy – to JWST in 2023 Libration point orbit – Quasiperiodic orbit around a Lagrange point List of deep fields List of largest infrared telescopes List of largest optical reflecting telescopes List of space telescopes Lunar Crater Radio Telescope - proposed telescope on the far side of the Moon in a crater Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope – planned launch no later than May 2027 New Worlds Mission – proposed occulter for the JWST Pea galaxy § 2023 Physical cosmology – Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe Satellite bus – Main body and structural component of the satellite Solar panels on spacecraft – Photovoltaic solar panels on spacecraft operating in the inner Solar System Spacecraft design Spacecraft attitude control – Process of controlling orientation of an aerospace vehicle Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Spacecraft thermal control – Process of keeping all parts of a spacecraft within acceptable temperature ranges Timeline of the James Webb Space Telescope Unknown: Cosmic Time Machine , Netflix documentary about the James Webb Space Telescope Notes [ edit ] ^ a b JWST was designed with the requirement to track objects that move as fast as Mars, which has a maximum apparent speed on the sky of 30 mas /s, which is the value given in the technical specification, i.e. the nominal value. [ 25 ] During commissioning, various asteroids were observed to determine the actual limitation for the speed of objects and it turned out to be 67 mas/s, which is more than twice the nominal value. Tracking at rates of 30–67 mas/s showed accuracies similar to tracking of slower targets. Thus, the telescope is able to observe also near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), comets closer to perihelion and interstellar objects . [ 26 ] : 8 Later, after more experience with FGS had been gained, the tracking speed limit was finally set to 75 mas/s for routine observations. Higher rates up to 100 mas/s are also possible on special request, as FGS needs multiple guide stars to this end, which introduces complexity and inefficiency. The first observation with a super-fast rate was the DART impact experiment on 26 September 2022. [ 27 ] ^ \"Baffled\", in this context, means enclosed in a tube in a similar manner to a conventional optical telescope , which helps to stop stray light entering the telescope from the side. For an actual example, see the following link: Freniere, E.R. (1981). \"First-order design of optical baffles\". Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, First-order design of optical baffles . Radiation Scattering in Optical Systems. Vol. 257. pp. 19– 28. Bibcode : 1981SPIE..257...19F . doi : 10.1117/12.959598 . ^ The C3 mirror segment is positioned in the outer ring of segments, located at the '5 o'clock' number of a clock face , when viewing the primary mirror face-on. [ 178 ] ^ HD 84406 is a star approximately 258.5 light-years away in the constellation of Ursa Major . The star is a spectral type G star and has a high proper motion . [ 219 ] ^ 2MASS J17554042+6551277 is a star in the constellation Draco , in the Milky Way . It is located almost 2,000 light years away from Earth , within a degree of the north ecliptic pole . Its visual apparent magnitude m v is 10.95, which makes it much too faint to be observed with the naked eye. It is cooler than the Sun , but some 13 to 16 times brighter in visible light, [ 227 ] and is consequently not a sun-like star . References [ edit ] ^ a b \"NASA JWST \"Who are the partners in the Webb project?\" \" . NASA. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011 . Retrieved 18 November 2011 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ \"FAQ Full General Public Webb Telescope/NASA\" . jwst.nasa.gov . Archived from the original on 23 July 2019 . Retrieved 13 January 2022 . ^ \"NASA Says Webb's Excess Fuel Likely to Extend its Lifetime Expectations – James Webb Space Telescope\" . blogs.nasa.gov . 29 December 2021. Archived from the original on 6 January 2022 . 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Rigby, Jane; Perrin, Marshall; McElwain, Michael; Kimble, Randy; Friedman, Scott; et al. (2023). \"The Science Performance of JWST as Characterized in Commissioning\". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific . 135 (1046): 048001. arXiv : 2207.05632 . Bibcode : 2023PASP..135d8001R . doi : 10.1088/1538-3873/acb293 . S2CID 253735464 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to James Webb Space Telescope . Official NASA / STScI / ESA / French website JWST NASA – Tracking Page − Launch to Final Calibrations (and more) JWST NASA – About page − Timeline details / Webb orbit / L2 / Communicating Chronological List of James Webb Telescope Discoveries JWST Text – Most Critical Events – Launching and Deployment (2021) JWST Video (031:22): Highlights − Technical Engineering Details (2021) JWST Video (012:02): 1st Month – Launching and Deployment (animation; 2017) JWST Video (008:06): 1st Month − Launching and Deployment (update; 2021) JWST Video (003:00): 2nd Month − Mirror Alignment details (2/11/2022) JWST Videos (Mission Control Live) – Deployment Events − Now Successfully Completed (2022): LAUNCH (005:07; 25 Dec 2021) ⇒ SEPARATION (003:14; 25 Dec 2021) ( mirror ) ⇒ James Webb Space Telescope: Sunshield Deployment – Mission Control Live SUNSHIELD (152:45; 04 Jan 2022) ⇒ James Webb Space Telescope: Secondary Mirror Deployment – Mission Control Live SECONDARY MIRROR (087:15; 05 Jan 2022) ⇒ James Webb Space Telescope: Primary Mirror Deployment – Mission Control Live PRIMARY MIRROR (242:29; 08 Jan 2022) ⇒ News Update on James Webb Space Telescope's Full Deployment FINAL DEPLOYMENT (085:15; 08 Jan 2022) ⇒ Media Briefing: What's Next for the James Webb Space Telescope ARRIVAL AT L 2 (077:14; 24 Jan 2022) ⇒ JAMES WEBB TELESCOPE First Photos, Data & Calibrations Explained TESTINGS & CALIBRATIONS ⇒ The First Thing That James Webb Will See FIRST LIGHT v t e James Webb Space Telescope Timeline of JWST Instruments and sensors Fine Guidance Sensor and Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph Mid-Infrared Instrument Near-Infrared Camera Near-Infrared Spectrograph Elements Integrated Science Instrument Module Optical Telescope Element (mirrors) Spacecraft bus Sunshield Stages Launch and commissioning (2021-2022) Ariane flight VA256 Images Webb's First Deep Field (2022) Discoveries CEERS-93316 (2022) GLASS-z12 (2022) JADES-GS-z13-0 (2022) LHS 475 b (2023) AzTECC71 (2023) Institutions NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Space Telescope Science Institute European Space Agency Canadian Space Agency Related SpaceWire OTE Pathfinder James E. 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Mather Nancy Roman v t e European Space Agency Space Centres Guiana Esrange Launch vehicles Ariane 6 Vega C Facilities Space Operations Centre Space Research and Technology Centre ESA Centre for Earth Observation European Astronaut Centre Space Astronomy Centre Space Applications and Telecommunications Centre Concurrent Design Facility Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility Communications ESTRACK European Data Relay System Programmes Artemis ESM Aurora Copernicus Columbus CryoSat EGNOS Galileo ELIPS ExoMars FLPP Living Planet Programme Space Situational Awareness Programme Science Programme Cosmic Vision PRIDE Predecessors European Launcher Development Organisation European Space Research Organisation Related topics Arianespace ESA Television EUMETSAT European Space Camp GEWEX Planetary Science Archive Projects and missions Science Solar physics ISEE-2 (1977–1987) Ulysses (1990–2009) SOHO (1995–present) Cluster II (2000–2024) Solar Orbiter (2020–present) Vigil (2031) Planetary science Giotto (1985–1992) Huygens (1997–2005) SMART-1 (2003–2006) Mars Express (2003–present) Rosetta / Philae (2004–2016) Venus Express (2005–2014) ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (2016–present) BepiColombo (2018–present) Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (2023) Hera (2024) Rosalind Franklin rover (2028) Comet Interceptor (2029) EnVision (2031) Astronomy and cosmology Cos-B (1975–1982) IUE (1978–1996) EXOSAT (1983–1986) Hipparcos (1989–1993) Hubble Space Telescope (1990–present) Eureca (1992–93) ISO (1995–1998) XMM-Newton (1999–present) INTEGRAL (2002–present) CoRoT (2006–13) Planck (2009–2013) Herschel (2009–2013) Gaia (2013–present) CHEOPS (2019–present) James Webb Space Telescope (2021–present) Euclid (2023–present) PLATO (2026) ARIEL (2029) ARRAKIHS (2030s) Athena (2035) LISA (2035) Earth observation Copernicus (1988–present) Meteosat First Generation (1977–1997) ERS-1 (1991–2000) ERS-2 (1995–2011) Meteosat Second Generation (2002–present) Envisat (2002–2012) Double Star (2003–2007) MetOp (2006–present) GOCE (2009–2013) SMOS (2009–present) CryoSat-2 (2010–present) Swarm (2013–present) Sentinel-1 / 1A / 1B / 1C (2014–present) Sentinel-2 / 2A / 2B / 2C (2015–present) Sentinel-3 / 3A / 3B (2016–present) Sentinel-5 Precursor (2017–present) ADM-Aeolus (2018–present) EarthCARE (2024–present) Meteosat Third Generation ( Sentinel-4 ) (2024) ALTIUS (2025) Biomass (2025) FLEX (2025) MetOp-SG-A (2025) MetOp-SG-B (2025) SMILE (2025) FORUM (2027) ISS contributions Columbus (2008–present) Automated Transfer Vehicle (2008–2015) Cupola (2010) European Robotic Arm (2021) Telecommunications GEOS 2 (1978) Olympus-1 (1989–1993) Artemis (2001–present) GIOVE-A (2005–present) GIOVE-B (2008–present) HYLAS-1 (2010–present) Galileo IOV (2011–present) Galileo FOC (2014–present) EGNOS European Data Relay System (2016–present) Technology demonstrators ARD (1998) PROBA-1 (2001–present) YES2 (2007) PROBA-2 (2009–present) PROBA-V (2013–present) IXV (2015) LISA Pathfinder (2015–2017) OPS-SAT (2019–present) PROBA-3 (2024–present) Cancelled and proposed AIDA Ariane 5 ME Calathus Mission Ceres Polar Lander Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer CSTS Darwin Mission Don Quijote e.Deorbit EChO Eddington EXPERT Hermes Hopper LOFT Lunar Lander Marco Polo MarcoPolo-R Mars sample return mission ODINUS Phootprint SOLARIS SPICA STE-QUEST THESEUS Failed Cluster CryoSat-1 GEOS 1 Schiaparelli EDM Future missions in italics Category Commons Wikinews WikiProject v t e Canadian Space Agency Canadian astronauts Active Jeremy Hansen David Saint-Jacques Jenni Sidey-Gibbons Joshua Kutryk Retired Marc Garneau Roberta Bondar Steven MacLean Chris Hadfield Robert Thirsk Bjarni Tryggvason Dafydd Williams Julie Payette Michael McKay Ken Money Satellites Alouette 1 Alouette 2 Anik series BRITE CASSIOPE Hermes ISIS 1 ISIS 2 M3MSat MOST MSAT-1 NEOSSat Nimiq series RADARSAT-1 RADARSAT-2 RADARSAT Constellation SCISAT-1 Sapphire Other space technology Black Brant rocket Canadarm Canadarm2 Dextre FGS/NIRISS MOPITT OSIRIS Facilities John H. Chapman Space Centre David Florida Laboratory Saskatoon CSA Building Contractors COM DEV MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates ( MDA Space Missions / Spar Aerospace ) Magellan Aerospace ( Bristol Aerospace ) Telesat Related institutions Canadian Geospace Monitoring Communications Research Centre Canada Defence Research and Development Canada National Research Council International partners ESA NASA ISRO JAXA SNSB Other Bell Satellite TV Churchill Rocket Research Range International Space Station Lunar Gateway Shaw Direct v t e 2021 in space « 2020 2022 » Space probe and telescope launches Tiangong space station Tianhe (April 2021) Lucy (Oct 2021) DART / LICIACube (Nov 2021) James Webb Space Telescope (Dec 2021) Impact events Winchcombe meteorite Selected NEOs Asteroid close approaches 2021 AV 7 2020 XR 2016 DV 1 2021 DW 1 99942 Apophis (231937) 2001 FO 32 2021 GW 4 2021 PH 27 (620094) 2016 AJ 193 2021 SG 2021 TP 21 2021 UA 1 (679648) 2019 XS 3361 Orpheus 1994 WR 12 4660 Nereus (163899) 2003 SD 220 2018 AH Exoplanets Alpha Centauri Ab (unconfirmed) COCONUTS-2b Gliese 486 HD 108236 f HD 110082 b Kepler-1704b KOI-5Ab L 98-59 e f? Lalande 21185 c Lambda Serpentis b LHS 1678 b c NGTS-13b NGTS-14Ab OGLE-2019-BLG-0960Lb PDS 70c circumplanetary disk TIC 172900988 b TOI-178 b c d e f g TOI-755 b c Vega b (unconfirmed) YSES 2 b Discoveries QSO J0313−1806 (distant quasar) ID2299 (elliptical galaxy) TIC 168789840 sextuple system V723 Mon black hole candidate 2018 AG 37 (TNO) 2021 DR 15 (TNO) ALESS 073.1 (spiral galaxy) PJ352–15 astrophysical jet 2MASS J0348−6022 (rapidly-rotating brown dwarf) ZTF J1901+1458 (massive white dwarf) WISE 1534–1043 (brown dwarf) 1 moon of Jupiter 1 moon of Saturn Andy's object (radio source) Comets C/2021 A1 (Leonard) C/2021 J1 (Maury-Attard) (248370) 2005 QN 173 8P/Tuttle C/2014 OG 392 (PanSTARRS) C/2014 UN 271 (Bernardinelli-Bernstein) C/2021 T4 (Lemmon) P/2021 U3 (Attard-Maury) Space exploration Hope Mars mission (Mars orbit insertion: Feb 2021) Mars 2020 (Mars orbit insertion: Feb 2021; Perseverance Mars landing: Feb 2021) Tianwen-1 (Mars orbit insertion: Feb 2021; Zhurong rover Mars landing: May 2021) Outer space portal Category:2020 in outer space — Category:2021 in outer space — Category:2022 in outer space v t e ← 2020 Orbital launches in 2021 2022 → January Türksat 5A PICS 1 , PICS 2 , Q-PACE , TechEdSat-7 Tiantong-1 03 Starlink V1.0-L16 (60 satellites) Starlink v1.0 R1 (10 satellites), ION-SCV 002 ( Flock-4s × 8 , SpaceBEE × 12 ), Capella 3 , Capella 4 , ICEYE × 3, Hawk × 3, Astrocast × 5 , Flock-4s × 40 , HYPSO-1 , Kepler × 8 , Lemur-2 × 8 , PTD-1 , SpaceBEE × 24 Yaogan 31-02 (3 satellites) February Kosmos 2549 / Lotos-S1 №4 Starlink V1.0-L18 (60 satellites) TJS 6 Progress MS-16 Starlink V1.0-L19 (60 satellites) Cygnus NG-15 ( MMSAT-1 , GuaraniSat-1 , Maya-2 , OPUSAT-II , RSP-01 , STARS-EC , WARP-01 ) Yaogan 31-03 (3 satellites) Amazônia-1 , SpaceBEE × 12 March Starlink V1.0-L17 (60 satellites) Starlink V1.0-L20 (60 satellites) Shiyan 9 Yaogan 31-04 (3 satellites) Starlink V1.0-L21 (60 satellites) CAS500-1 , Suisen / Fukui Prefectural Satellite , Kepler 6 , Kepler 7 Photon Pathstone , BlackSky Global 9 Starlink V1.0-L22 (60 satellites) OneWeb L5 (36 satellites) Gaofen 12-02 April Starlink V1.0-L23 (60 satellites) Shiyan 6-03 Soyuz MS-18 SpaceX Crew-2 OneWeb L6 (36 satellites) USA-314 / KH-11 18 Pléiades-Neo 3 , Lemur-2 AMANDA-SVANTE , Lemur-2 SPECIAL K Tianhe Starlink V1.0-L24 (60 satellites) Yaogan 34 May Starlink V1.0-L25 (60 satellites) Yaogan 30-08 (3 satellites) Starlink V1.0-L27 (60 satellites) Starlink V1.0-L26 (52 satellites), Capella 6 USA-315 / SBIRS-GEO 5 HaiYang-2D Starlink V1.0-L28 (60 satellites) Tianzhou 2 OneWeb L7 (36 satellites) June Fengyun 4B SpaceX CRS-22 SXM-8 USA-316 , USA-317 , USA-318 Shenzhou 12 USA-319 / GPS IIIA - 05 Yaogan 30-09 (3 satellites) Kosmos 2550 / Pion-NKS №1 Progress MS-17 Brik-II , STORK-4 , STORK-5 Starlink V1.0-R2 (3 satellites), ION-SCV 003 ( SPARTAN ), SHERPA FX2 ( Lynk 05 , Astrocast × 5 , Lemur-2 × 3 , SpaceBEE × 12 ), SHERPA LTE1 ( KSF1 × 4 ), Capella 5 , ICEYE × 4, Hawk × 3, ÑuSat × 4, Lemur-2 × 3 , LINCS A , LINCS B , SpaceBEE × 12 , SpaceBEE NZ × 4 , Tiger-2 , TROPICS Pathfinder July OneWeb L8 (36 satellites) Jilin-1 Kuanfu-01B , Jilin-1 Gaofen-03D x 3 Fengyun-3E Tianlian I-05 Yaogan 30-10 (3 satellites) Nauka ( European Robotic Arm ) Eutelsat Quantum , Star One D2 August Jilin-1 Mofang-01A † ChinaSat 2E Cygnus NG-16 EOS-03 / GISAT-1 † Pléiades Neo 4 OneWeb L9 (34 satellites) TJS-7 SpaceX CRS-23 ( Maya-3 , Maya-4 ) September Gaofen 5-02 ChinaSat 9B Kosmos 2551 / EO MKA №1 Starlink G2-1 (51 satellites) OneWeb L10 (34 satellites) Inspiration4 Tianzhou 3 Jilin-1 Gaofen-02D Shiyan 10 Landsat 9 , CUTE October Soyuz MS-19 OneWeb L11 (36 satellites) CHASE Shenzhou 13 Lucy Shijian 21 SES-17 , Syracuse 4A QZS-1R Jilin-1 Gaofen-02F Progress MS-18 November RAISE-2 , HIBARI , Z-Sat , DRUMS , TeikyoSat-4 , ASTERISC , ARICA , NanoDragon , KOSEN-1 SpaceX Crew-3 CERES x 3 DART ( LICIACube ) Progress M-UM ( Prichal ) Yaogan 32-2 (2 satellites) Yaogan 35 (3 satellites) December Starlink 24 (48 satellites) Soyuz MS-20 IXPE Ekspress-AMU3 Ekspress-AMU7 Starlink 25 (52 satellites) Türksat 5B SpaceX CRS-24 Inmarsat-6 F1 James Webb Space Telescope Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ). Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses). Authority control databases International VIAF FAST WorldCat National United States Norway Portals : Astronomy Outer space Solar System Spaceflight Stars Technology\n",
      "\n",
      "NASA-led lunar exploration program This article is about the NASA Moon program. For the deity it was named after, see Artemis . For other uses, see Artemis (disambiguation) . Artemis program Program overview Country United States Organization NASA and partners: ESA , JAXA , DLR , ASI , ISA , MBRSC , and CSA Purpose Sustainable crewed lunar exploration Status Ongoing Program history Cost US$93+ billion (2012–2025), $53 billion in 2021–2025 [ 1 ] Duration 2017 ; 8 years ago ( 2017 ) –present [ 2 ] First flight Artemis I (November 16, 2022, 06:47:44 UTC) [ 3 ] [ 4 ] First crewed flight Artemis II ( NET April 2026) [ 5 ] Launch site(s) Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Kennedy Space Center Starbase Vehicle information Crewed vehicle(s) Orion Starship HLS Lunar Gateway Crew capacity 4 [ 6 ] Launch vehicle(s) Space Launch System [ 7 ] Starship Falcon Heavy [ 8 ] New Glenn Commercial launch vehicles [ 9 ] Part of a series on the United States space program NASA U.S. Space Force Human spaceflight programs Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Space Shuttle Shuttle– Mir International Space Station Commercial Crew Constellation Artemis Lunar Gateway Robotic spaceflight programs CRS Explorers GLS Large Strategic Lunar Orbiter Lunar Precursor Mariner Mars Exploration New Millennium Pioneer Planetary Missions Discovery New Frontiers Solar System Exploration Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Vanguard Viking Voyager X-37 NASA Astronaut Corps Mercury Gemini Apollo Space Shuttle Spaceports Eastern Range Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Kennedy Space Center Wallops Flight Facility Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska Western Range Vandenberg Space Force Base Space launch vehicles Alpha Antares Atlas V Electron Falcon 9 Falcon Heavy LauncherOne Minotaur I III IV V C New Glenn New Shepard Pegasus Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur National security space United States Space Force National Reconnaissance Office United States Space Command Civil space Department of Energy national laboratories Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service Office of Space Commerce Space Weather Prediction Center Department of State Office of Space Affairs Office of Science and Technology Policy Commercial space industry Astra Ball Aerospace Bigelow Aerospace Blue Origin Boeing Firefly Aerospace Lockheed Martin Raytheon Rocket Lab Northrop Grumman Sierra Nevada Corporation SpaceX SSL United Launch Alliance Virgin Galactic Virgin Orbit v t e The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program led by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), formally established in 2017 via Space Policy Directive 1 . It is intended to reestablish a human presence on the Moon for the first time since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The program's stated long-term goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars . Two principal elements of the Artemis program are derived from the now-cancelled Constellation program : the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System (SLS) (as a reincarnation of Ares V ). Other elements of the program, such as the Lunar Gateway space station and the Human Landing System , are in development by government space agencies and private spaceflight companies, collaborations bound by the Artemis Accords and governmental contracts. The Space Launch System, Orion spacecraft and the Human Landing System form the main spaceflight infrastructure for Artemis, and the Lunar Gateway plays a supporting role in human habitation. Supporting infrastructures for Artemis include the Commercial Lunar Payload Services , development of ground infrastructures , Artemis Base Camp on the Moon, Moon rovers, and spacesuits. Some aspects of the program have been criticized, such as the use of a near-rectilinear halo orbit and the program's sustainability. Orion's first launch on the Space Launch System was originally set in 2016, but faced numerous delays; it launched on November 16, 2022 as the Artemis I mission, with robots and mannequins aboard. As of January 2025 [update] , the crewed Artemis II launch is expected to take place in April 2026, the Artemis III crewed lunar landing is scheduled for mid-2027, the Artemis IV docking with the Lunar Gateway is planned for late 2028, the Artemis V docking with the European Space Agency's ESPRIT , Canada's Canadarm3, and NASA's Lunar Terrain Vehicle is planned for early 2030, and the Artemis VI docking which is expected to integrate the Crew and Science Airlock with the Lunar Gateway station is planned for early 2031. After Artemis VI, NASA plans yearly landings on the Moon from then on. However, the NASA Inspector General has called the schedules unrealistic. Overview [ edit ] Planned missions of Artemis program Currently operational crewed spacecraft (at least orbital class) The Artemis program is organized around a series of SLS missions. These space missions will increase in complexity and are scheduled to occur at intervals of a year or more. NASA and its partners have planned Artemis I through Artemis V missions; later Artemis missions have also been proposed. Each SLS mission centers on the launch of an SLS launch vehicle carrying an Orion spacecraft . Missions after Artemis II will depend on support missions launched by other organizations and spacecraft for support functions. SLS missions [ edit ] Artemis I (2022) was the successful uncrewed test of the SLS and Orion, and was the first test flight for both craft. [ i ] The Artemis I mission placed Orion into a lunar orbit and then returned to Earth. The SLS Block 1 design uses the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) second stage, which performs the trans-lunar injection burn to send Orion to lunar space. For Artemis I, Orion braked into a polar distant retrograde lunar orbit and remained for about six days before boosting back toward Earth. The Orion capsule separated from its service module, re-entered the atmosphere for aerobraking , and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean under parachutes. [ 10 ] Artemis II (2026) is planned to be the first crewed test flight of SLS and the Orion spacecraft. [ 5 ] The four crew members will perform extensive testing in Earth orbit, and Orion will then be boosted into a free-return trajectory around the Moon , which will return Orion to Earth for re-entry and splashdown. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than April 2026. [ 5 ] [ 11 ] Artemis III (2027) is planned to be the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972. [ 5 ] The mission depends on a support mission to place a Starship Human Landing System (HLS) in a near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO) of the Moon prior to the launch of SLS/Orion. After Starship HLS reaches NRHO, SLS/Orion will send the Orion spacecraft with a crew of four to dock with HLS. [ ii ] Two astronauts will transfer to HLS, which will descend to the lunar surface and spend about 6.5 days on the surface. [ 12 ] The astronauts will perform at least two Extravehicular Activities (EVAs) on the surface before the HLS ascends to return them to a rendezvous with Orion. Orion will return the four astronauts to Earth. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than mid-2027. [ 5 ] [ 11 ] Artemis IV (2028) is planned to be the second crewed lunar landing mission. Orion and an upgraded Starship HLS will dock with the Lunar Gateway station in NRHO prior to the landing. A prior support mission will deliver the first two Lunar Gateway modules to NRHO. The extra power of this mission's SLS Block 1B will allow it to deliver the I-HAB Gateway module for connection to the Lunar Gateway. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than September 2028. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Artemis V (2030) is planned to be the third crewed lunar landing, which will deliver four astronauts to the Lunar Gateway station. The mission will deliver the European Space Agency 's ESPRIT refueling and communications module and Canadarm3 , a Canadian-built robotic arm system for the Gateway. Also delivered will be NASA's Lunar Terrain Vehicle . Launch is scheduled for no earlier than March 2030. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] The mission will also be the first to use Blue Origin 's Blue Moon lander to take astronauts to the Moon's surface. Artemis VI (2031) is planned to be the fourth crewed lunar landing, which will integrate the Crew and Science Airlock with the Gateway space station. [ 16 ] Launch is scheduled for no earlier than March 2031. [ 15 ] As of 2024, the Airlock module is under construction. [ 17 ] Artemis VII (2032) is planned to be the fifth crewed lunar landing, which will deliver the Habitable Mobility Platform ( Lunar Cruiser ) to the surface of the moon on an SLS Block 1B rocket. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than March 2032. [ 18 ] Artemis VIII (2033) is planned to be the sixth crewed lunar landing, which will have a lunar landing with the delivery of lunar surface logistics and the Foundational Surface Habitat using an SLS Block 1B rocket with the aid of Blue Origin. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than 2033. [ 19 ] Artemis IX (2034) is planned to be the seventh crewed lunar landing, which will have another lunar landing with the delivery of additional lunar surface logistics. Unlike Artemis VIII, however, this mission will be the first to use a SLS Block 2 rocket. [ 20 ] Artemis X (2035) is planned to be the eighth crewed lunar landing, which will feature the delivery of additional lunar surface logistics using an SLS Block 2 rocket, and will also include astronauts staying on the moon for an extended period of time. [ 20 ] Support missions [ edit ] Support missions include robotic landers, delivery of Gateway modules, Gateway logistics, delivery of the HLS, and delivery of elements of the Moon base. Most of these missions are executed under NASA contracts to commercial providers. Under the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, several robotic landers will deliver scientific instruments and robotic rovers to the lunar surface after Artemis I. Additional CLPS missions are planned throughout the Artemis program to deliver payloads to the Moon base. These include habitat modules and rovers in support of crewed missions. A Human Landing System (HLS) is a spacecraft that can convey crew members from NRHO to the lunar surface, support them on the surface, and return them to NRHO. Each crewed landing needs one HLS, although some or all of the spacecraft may be reusable. Each HLS must be launched from Earth and delivered to NRHO in one or more launches. The initial commercial contract was awarded to SpaceX for two Starship HLS missions, one uncrewed and one crewed as part of Artemis III. These two missions each require one HLS launch and multiple fueling launches, all on SpaceX Starship launchers. NASA later exercised an option under the initial contract to commission an upgraded Starship HLS for Artemis IV and a separate contract to Blue Origin to develop a third crewed lunar lander, which will make its first crewed flight as part of the Artemis V mission. The first two Gateway modules (PPE and HALO) will be delivered to NRHO in a single launch using a Falcon Heavy launcher. Originally planned to be available prior to Artemis III, as of 2021 it is planned for availability before Artemis IV. The Gateway will be resupplied and supported by launches of Dragon XL spacecraft launched by Falcon Heavy. Each Dragon XL will remain attached to Gateway for up to six months. The Dragon XLs will not return to Earth, but will be disposed of, probably by deliberate crashes on the lunar surface. History [ edit ] Further information: Artemis HLS development history Artist's rendering of the lunar module (left) and space capsule of the Constellation program Artist's impression of an SLS launch Early history [ edit ] The Artemis program incorporates several major components of previously cancelled NASA programs and missions, including the Constellation program and the Asteroid Redirect Mission . Originally legislated by the NASA Authorization Act of 2005 , Constellation included the development of Ares I , Ares V , and the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle. The program ran from the early 2000s until 2010. [ 21 ] In May 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama established the Augustine Committee to take into account several objectives including support for the International Space Station , development of missions beyond low Earth orbit (including the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth objects ), and use of the commercial space industry within defined budget limits. [ 22 ] The committee concluded that the Constellation program was massively underfunded and that a 2020 Moon landing was impossible. Constellation was subsequently put on hold. [ 23 ] On April 15, 2010, President Obama spoke at the Kennedy Space Center , announcing the administration's plans for NASA and cancelling the non-Orion elements of Constellation on the premise that the program had become nonviable. [ 24 ] He instead proposed US$6 billion in additional funding and called for development of a new heavy-lift rocket program to be ready for construction by 2015 with crewed missions to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s. [ 25 ] On October 11, 2010, President Obama signed into law the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 , which included requirements for the immediate development of the Space Launch System as a follow-on launch vehicle to the Space Shuttle , and continued development of a Crew Exploration Vehicle to be capable of supporting missions beyond low Earth orbit starting in 2016, while making use of the workforce, assets, and capabilities of the Space Shuttle program , Constellation program, and other NASA programs. The law also invested in space technologies and robotics capabilities tied to the overall space exploration framework, ensured continued support for Commercial Orbital Transportation Services , Commercial Resupply Services , and expanded the Commercial Crew Development program. [ 26 ] On June 30, 2017, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to re-establish the National Space Council , chaired by Vice-President Mike Pence . The Trump administration's first budget request kept Obama-era human spaceflight programs in place: Commercial Resupply Services, Commercial Crew Development, the Space Launch System, and the Orion spacecraft for deep space missions, while reducing Earth science research and calling for the elimination of NASA's education office. [ 27 ] Redefinition and naming as Artemis [ edit ] On December 11, 2017, president Trump signed Space Policy Directive 1 , a change in national space policy that provides for a U.S.-led, integrated program with private sector partners for a human return to the Moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the NASA administrator to \"lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the Solar System and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and opportunities\". The effort intends to more effectively organize government, private industry, and international efforts toward returning humans to the Moon and laying the foundation of eventual human exploration of Mars . [ 2 ] Space Policy Directive 1 authorized the lunar-focused campaign. The campaign, later named Artemis, draws upon legacy US spacecraft programs, including the Orion space capsule, the Lunar Gateway space station, and Commercial Lunar Payload Services , and creates entirely new programs such as the Human Landing System. The in-development Space Launch System is expected to serve as the primary launch vehicle for Orion, while commercial launch vehicles will launch various other elements of the program. [ 28 ] On March 26, 2019, Vice President Mike Pence announced that NASA's Moon landing goal would be accelerated by four years with a planned landing in 2024. [ 29 ] On May 16, 2019, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the new program would be named Artemis , after the goddess of the Moon in Greek mythology who is the twin sister of Apollo . [ 28 ] [ 30 ] Despite the immediate new goals, Mars missions by the 2030s were still intended as of May 2019 [update] . [ 2 ] In mid-2019, NASA requested US$1.6 billion in additional funding for Artemis for fiscal year 2020, [ 31 ] while the Senate Appropriations Committee requested from NASA a five-year budget profile [ 32 ] which is needed for evaluation and approval by Congress . [ 33 ] [ 34 ] In February 2020, the White House requested a funding increase of 12% to cover the Artemis program as part of its fiscal year 2021 budget . The total budget would have been US$25.2 billion per year with US$3.7 billion dedicated toward a Human Landing System. NASA Chief Financial Officer Jeff DeWit said he thought the agency has \"a very good shot\" to get this budget through Congress despite Democratic concerns around the program. [ 35 ] However, in July 2020 the House Appropriations Committee rejected the White House's requested funding increase. [ 36 ] The bill proposed in the House dedicated only US$700 million toward the Human Landing System, 81% (US$3 billion) short of the requested amount. [ 37 ] In April 2020, NASA awarded funding to Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX for 10-month-long preliminary design studies for the HLS. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Throughout February 2021, Acting Administrator of NASA Steve Jurczyk reiterated those budget concerns when asked about the project's schedule, [ 41 ] [ 42 ] clarifying that \"The 2024 lunar landing goal may no longer be a realistic target [...]\". [ 43 ] On February 4, 2021, the Biden administration endorsed the Artemis program. [ 44 ] More specifically, White House Press Secretary Jen Psaki expressed the Biden administration's \"support [for] this effort and endeavor\". [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] On April 16, 2021, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop, manufacture, and fly two lunar landing flights with the Starship HLS lunar lander. [ 48 ] Blue Origin and Dynetics protested the award to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) on April 26. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] After the GAO rejected the protests, [ 51 ] Blue Origin sued NASA over the award, [ 52 ] [ 53 ] and NASA agreed to stop work on the contract until November 1, 2021 as the lawsuit proceeded. The judge dismissed the suit on 4 November 2021 and NASA resumed work with SpaceX. [ 54 ] On September 25, 2021, NASA released its first digital, interactive graphic novel in celebration of National Comic Book Day. \"First Woman: NASA's Promise for Humanity\" is the fictional story of Callie Rodriguez, the first woman to explore the Moon. [ 55 ] On November 15, 2021, an audit of NASA's Office of Inspector General estimated the true cost of the Artemis program at about $93 billion until 2025. [ 1 ] In addition to the initial SpaceX contract, NASA awarded two rounds of separate contracts in May 2019 [ 56 ] and September 2021, [ 57 ] on aspects of the HLS to encourage alternative designs, separately from the initial HLS development effort. It announced in March 2022 that it was developing new sustainability rules and pursuing both a Starship HLS upgrade (an option under the initial SpaceX contract) and new competing alternative designs. These came after criticism from members of Congress over lack of redundancy and competition, and led NASA to ask for additional support. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Artemis I (2022) [ edit ] Further information: Artemis I Artemis I successfully launched from the Kennedy Space Center on November 16, 2022. Orion shortly after splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on December 11, 2022. Artemis I was originally scheduled for late 2016, and as delays accrued, eventually for late 2021, but the launch date was then pushed back to August 29, 2022. [ 60 ] Various delays related to final infrastructure repairs and weather pushed the launch date further out. [ 61 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] In October 2022, NASA launch managers decided on a new launch date in November, which were again slightly delayed due to preparation and weather. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] [ 4 ] On November 16 at 01:47:44 EST (06:47:44 UTC), Artemis I successfully launched from the Kennedy Space Center . [ 70 ] Artemis I was completed at 09:40 PST (17:40 UTC) on 11 December, when the Orion spacecraft splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, west of Baja California, after a record-breaking mission, which saw Artemis travel more than 2.3 million kilometers (1.4 million miles) on a path around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. The splashdown occurred 50 years to the day since NASA's Apollo 17 Moon landing, the last human crewed mission to touch down on the lunar surface. [ 71 ] Artemis II (2026) [ edit ] Further information: Artemis II Artemis II is scheduled to launch in April 2026 as a crewed lunar flyby. The European Service Module for the mission was completed and handed over to NASA in 2023. [ 72 ] Testing is underway on the Orion module for Artemis II. In April 2024, Lockheed was on track to hand over the Orion module by September after testing was complete. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 76 ] A NASA OIG report released on May 1 reported the mission was still on track, provided corrective actions on the Orion heat shield were made. [ 77 ] The Artemis II crew planned to conduct a series of trainings and simulations prior to launch, the first of which occurred in May 2024. [ 78 ] The SLS core stage for the mission was delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in July 2024. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Notably, the SLS core stage for Artemis II was the last to be fully built at the Michoud Assembly Facility : future missions starting with Artemis III will have the core stage partly built after arriving at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida, managed by Exploration Ground Systems , which was deemed to be more efficient by program officials. [ 81 ] In July, the Orion spacecraft was moved from the testing cell to the altitude chamber inside the Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building at KSC. [ 82 ] Rocket stacking operations began on November 20, 2024, when the left aft assembly of the booster was stacked onto the Mobile Launcher. The stacking marked a crucial step for launch in late 2025. [ 83 ] On December 5, 2024, NASA delayed the Artemis II mission from September 2025 to April 2026, citing damage found to the heat shield of the uncrewed Orion capsule that flew on the Artemis I mission in 2022. [ 84 ] Crew [ edit ] Glover (left), Koch (center), and Hansen (right) are planned to be the first person of color, woman, and non-US citizen to go beyond low Earth orbit, respectively. Position Astronaut Commander Reid Wiseman , NASA Second spaceflight Pilot Victor Glover , NASA Second spaceflight Payload Specialist Christina Koch , NASA Second spaceflight Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen , CSA First spaceflight Artemis II is to be crewed by four astronauts: Commander Reid Wiseman , Pilot Victor J. Glover , Payload Specialist Christina Koch , and Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen . [ 85 ] Jenni Sidey-Gibbons is Hansen's backup; she will join the mission if Hansen is unable to. [ 86 ] [ 87 ] Glover, Koch, and Hansen are planned to be the first person of color , woman, and non-US citizen to go beyond low Earth orbit , respectively. [ 85 ] Hansen and Sidey-Gibbons are Canadian and have been assigned by the Canadian Space Agency ; [ 85 ] a 2020 treaty between the United States and Canada led to their involvement. [ 88 ] Artemis III (2027) [ edit ] Further information: Artemis III Artemis III is expected to launch in mid-2027 as the first crewed landing on the Moon since Apollo 17. In February 2024, NASA completed full qualification testing of the docking systems on Starship HLS . [ 89 ] Also in February, the bulk of the manufacturing for the core stage of the SLS to be used in the mission was completed. [ 90 ] In April 2024, NASA announced the successful completion of Starship’s first internal propellant transfer demonstration. The Starship’s tanker variant ability to act as an orbital propellant depot to Starship HLS is a key capability necessary to complete the Artemis III mission. A ship-to-ship propellant transfer demonstration to further prove out the capability is expected in 2025. [ 91 ] The European Service Module for the mission was reported on track to be handed over to NASA in summer 2024. [ 92 ] The first integrated test for the mission, which included the next generation space suits developed by Axiom Space, and the airlock module of Starship HLS was conducted in June 2024. [ 93 ] On December 5, 2024, NASA delayed the Artemis III mission from September 2026 to mid-2027, citing damage found to the heat shield of the uncrewed Orion capsule that flew on the Artemis I mission in 2022. [ 84 ] Instruments and payloads [ edit ] In March 2024, NASA announced the scientific instruments to be included on the mission were a compact, autonomous seismometer suite called the Lunar Environment Monitoring Station, or LEMS. LEMS will characterize the regional structure of the Moon's crust and mantle to inform the development of lunar formation and evolution models. Another instrument is Lunar Effects on Agricultural Flora, a.k.a. LEAF, which will investigate the impact of the lunar surface environment on space crops. The third instrument is the Lunar Dielectric Analyzer, or LDA, an internationally contributed payload that will measure the regolith's ability to propagate an electric field. [ 94 ] Artemis IV (2028) [ edit ] Further information: Artemis IV Artemis IV is expected to launch in September 2028. Prior to the launch of the mission, a Falcon Heavy is planned to launch the first two Lunar Gateway elements: the Power and Propulsion Element and Habitation and Logistics Outpost , now scheduled for 2027 . Artemis IV will then be responsible for launching with a crew with the International Habitation Module (I-Hab) and adding the module to the Gateway space station. SLS Block 1B manufacture began in March 2024. [ 95 ] The I-Hab module construction was underway as of April 2024. [ 96 ] In May 2024, it was reported NASA made significant progress towards completion of Mobile Launcher 2 (ML-2), the launch platform that will be used by the larger SLS Block 1B. [ 97 ] However, in August 2024, the NASA Inspector General estimated that the launch platform could end up costing the agency $2.5 billion, more than six times its original value and may not be ready to support a launch until 2029, making the current launch schedule unrealistic. [ 98 ] NASA has highlighted five key points for the mission (in chronological order): The crewed Orion spacecraft and Lunar I-Hab Gateway element will launch as a co-manifested payload on an SLS Block 1B rocket to lunar orbit. Orion will deliver Lunar I-Hab to Gateway, where it will dock to HALO. A Human Landing System spacecraft will dock to Gateway. Artemis IV crew members will use the Human Landing System to descend to and later ascend from the lunar surface. Artemis IV crew will return to Earth on Orion. [ 99 ] Artemis V (2030) [ edit ] Further information: Artemis V Artemis V is expected to launch in March 2030. The mission will launch four astronauts on a Space Launch System rocket and an Orion spacecraft to the Lunar Gateway and will be the third lunar landing of the Artemis program. In addition, Artemis V will deliver two new elements to the Gateway space station. [ 100 ] After docking to the Gateway, two astronauts will board the Blue Moon lunar lander and fly it to the Lunar south pole to land near the Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV). This will be the first lunar landing since Apollo 17 to use an unpressurized lunar rover. [ 101 ] NASA has highlighted five key points for the mission (in chronological order): The crewed Orion spacecraft and the Lunar View element will launch as a co-manifested payload on an SLS Block 1B rocket to lunar orbit. Orion will deliver Lunar View to Gateway, where it will dock to HALO. A Human Landing System spacecraft will dock to Gateway. Artemis V crew members will use the Human Landing System to descend to and later ascend from the lunar surface. Artemis V crew will return to Earth on Orion. [ 99 ] Artemis VI (2031) [ edit ] Artemis VI is expected to launch in March 2031. [ 15 ] According to NASA, the primary objectives of this mission would be to integrate the Crew and Science Airlock Module with Gateway and complete the fourth crewed lunar surface expedition of the Artemis missions. [ 99 ] As of 2024, the Airlock module is under construction by Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre . [ 17 ] NASA has highlighted five key points for the mission (in chronological order): The crewed Orion spacecraft and Gateway’s Crew and Science Airlock will launch as a co-manifested payload on an SLS Block 1B rocket to lunar orbit. Orion will deliver the Crew and Science Airlock to Gateway, where it will dock to Lunar I-Hab. A Human Landing System spacecraft will dock to Gateway. Artemis VI crew members will use the Human Landing System to descend to and later ascend from the lunar surface. Artemis VI crew will return to Earth on Orion. [ 99 ] Artemis VII (2032) [ edit ] Artemis VII is expected to launch in March 2032. According to NASA, the objectives of this mission would be to deliver the Habitable Mobility Platform ( Lunar Cruiser ) to the surface of the moon on an SLS Block 1B rocket. The mission is expected to last around 30 days. [ 20 ] [ 19 ] Artemis VIII (2033) [ edit ] Artemis VIII is expected to launch in 2033. According to NASA, the mission would have a lunar landing with the delivery of lunar surface logistics and the Foundational Surface Habitat using an SLS Block 1B rocket with the aid of Blue Origin. The mission is expected to last around 60 days. [ 19 ] Artemis IX (2034) [ edit ] Artemis IX is expected to launch in 2034. According to NASA, the mission will have another lunar landing with the delivery of additional lunar surface logistics. Unlike Artemis VIII, however, this mission will be the first to use a SLS Block 2 rocket. The mission is expected to last around 60 days. [ 20 ] Artemis X (2035) [ edit ] Artemis X is planned to launch in 2035. According to NASA, this mission will feature the delivery of additional lunar surface logistics, and will also include astronauts staying on the moon long-term. The mission is expected to last up to 180 days. [ 20 ] Future [ edit ] As of 2025, additional missions beyond Artemis X have not officially been discussed. Additionally, the NASA Inspector General has stated that the current launch timeline is \"unrealistic\" and will likely be further delayed. [ 20 ] Supporting programs [ edit ] Implementation of the Artemis program will require additional programs, projects, and commercial launchers to support the construction of the Lunar Gateway, launch resupply missions to the station, and deploy numerous robotic spacecraft and instruments to the lunar surface. [ 102 ] Several precursor robotic missions are being coordinated through the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, which is dedicated to scouting and characterization of lunar resources as well as testing principles for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). [ 102 ] [ 103 ] Models of the first three commercial robotic landers selected for CLPS . From left: Peregrine by Astrobotic Technology , Nova-C by Intuitive Machines , and Z-01 by OrbitBeyond . Commercial Lunar Payload Services [ edit ] Main article: Commercial Lunar Payload Services In March 2018, NASA established the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program with the aim of sending small robotic landers and rovers mostly to the lunar south pole region as a precursor to and in support of crewed missions. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] The main goals include scouting of lunar resources , ISRU feasibility testing, and lunar science. [ 106 ] NASA is awarding commercial providers indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity contracts to develop and fly lunar landers with scientific payloads. [ 107 ] The first phase considered proposals capable of delivering at least 10 kg (22 lb) of payload by the end of 2021. [ 107 ] Proposals for mid-sized landers capable of delivering between 500 kg (1,100 lb) and 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) of cargo were planned to also be considered for launch beyond 2021. [ 108 ] In November 2018, NASA announced the first nine companies that were qualified to bid on the CLPS transportation service contracts (see list below). [ 109 ] On 31 May 2019, three of those were awarded lander contracts: Astrobotic Technology , Intuitive Machines , and OrbitBeyond . [ 110 ] On July 29, 2019, NASA announced that it had granted OrbitBeyond's request to be released from obligations under the contract citing \"internal corporate challenges\". [ 111 ] The first twelve payloads and experiments from NASA centers were announced on February 21, 2019. [ 112 ] On July 1, 2019, NASA announced the selection of twelve additional payloads, provided by universities and industry. Seven of these are scientific investigations while five are technology demonstrations. [ 113 ] The Lunar Surface Instrument and Technology Payloads (LSITP) program was soliciting payloads in 2019 that do not require significant additional development. They will include technology demonstrators to advance lunar science or the commercial development of the Moon. [ 114 ] [ 115 ] In November 2019, NASA added five contractors to the group of companies who are eligible to bid to send large payloads to the surface of the Moon under the CLPS program: Blue Origin , Ceres Robotics , Sierra Nevada Corporation , SpaceX , and Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems . [ 116 ] [ 117 ] In April 2020, NASA selected Masten Space Systems for a follow-on CLPS delivery of cargo to the Moon in 2022. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] On June 23, 2021, Masten Space Systems announced it was delayed until November 2023. Dave Masten, the founder and chief technology officer, blamed the delay on the COVID pandemic and industry-wide supply chain issues. [ 120 ] In February 2021, NASA selected Firefly Aerospace for a CLPS launch to Mare Crisium in mid-2023. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Commercial contractors qualified to bid for CLPS NASA-funded design work Qualification date Company Proposed services Contract award Date amount US$ millions November 29, 2018 Astrobotic Technology Peregrine lander May 31, 2019 79.5 [ 110 ] Deep Space Systems Rover; design and development services [ 109 ] Draper Laboratory Series 2 lander July 21, 2022 73 [ 123 ] Firefly Aerospace Blue Ghost lander February 4, 2021 93.3 [ 121 ] Intuitive Machines Nova-C lander May 31, 2019 77 [ 110 ] Lockheed Martin Space McCandless Lunar Lander [ 109 ] Masten Space Systems XL-1 lander April 8, 2020 75.9 [ 118 ] [ 109 ] Moon Express MX-1, MX-2, MX-5, MX-9 landers; sample return. [ 109 ] OrbitBeyond Z-01 and Z-02 landers May 31, 2019 97 [ 110 ] [ a ] November 18, 2019 Blue Origin Blue Moon lander [ 117 ] Ceres Robotics [ 117 ] Sierra Nevada Corporation [ 117 ] SpaceX Starship cargo lander [ 117 ] Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems [ 117 ] ^ On July 29, 2019, NASA accepted a request for contract termination from OrbitBeyond given its identification of internal corporate challenges [ 124 ] International contractors [ edit ] Name Country Location Program element Services performed Toyota Japan Toyota City Crewed lunar rover Lunar Cruiser [ 125 ] ArianeGroup France Gironde Orion Propulsion system components [ 126 ] ESAB Sweden Laxå Municipality Space Launch System Fuel tank structures [ 127 ] MT Aerospace Germany Augsburg Space Launch System Cryogenic core stage dome core panels [ 128 ] Schaeffler Aerospace Germany GmbH & Co. KG Germany Schweinfurt Space Launch System Cronidur 30 in SLS propulsion systems, components for Orion spacecraft [ 129 ] Magna Steyr Austria Graz Space Launch System Pressurization lines for the SLS core stage [ 130 ] Airbus Germany Bremen Orion Orion European Service Module [ 131 ] 7 Sisters Consortium (includes Fleet Space Technologies, [ 132 ] OZ Minerals , University of Adelaide , [ 133 ] University of New South Wales , and Unearthed) Australia Adelaide , Perth , Sydney Lunar exploration support Companion program to Artemis to provide nanosatellite solutions and exploration support for crewed Artemis missions. [ 134 ] MDA Canada Brampton , Ontario Lunar Gateway Canadarm 3 [ 135 ] Ispace Japan Tokyo Lunar in situ resource utilization Hakuto-R lunar regolith transfer [ 136 ] Ispace Europe Luxembourg Luxembourg City Lunar in situ resource utilization Lunar regolith transfer [ 137 ] Artemis Accords [ edit ] Main article: Artemis Accords On May 5, 2020, Reuters reported that the Trump administration was drafting a new international agreement outlining the laws for mining on the Moon . [ 138 ] NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine officially announced the Artemis Accords on May 15, 2020. It consists of a series of multilateral agreements between the governments of participating nations in the Artemis program \"grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 \". [ 139 ] [ 140 ] The Artemis Accords have been criticized by some American researchers as \"a concerted, strategic effort to redirect international space cooperation in favor of short-term U.S. commercial interests\". [ 141 ] Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) [ edit ] Main article: Exploration Ground Systems The Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) Program is one of three NASA programs based at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. EGS was established to develop and operate the systems and facilities necessary to process and launch rockets and spacecraft during assembly, transport, and launch. [ 142 ] EGS is preparing the infrastructure to support NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and its payloads, such as the Orion spacecraft for Artemis I. [ 143 ] [ 144 ] Gateway Logistics Services [ edit ] Main article: Gateway Logistics Services The Lunar Gateway is a space station to be constructed in lunar orbit, and the Gateway Logistics Services program will provide cargo and other supplies to the station, even when crews are not present. [ 145 ] As of 2022 [update] , only SpaceX's supply vehicle, known as Dragon XL , is planned to supply the Gateway. Dragon XL is a version of the Dragon spacecraft , to be launched by the Falcon Heavy . Unlike Dragon 2 and its predecessor, it is intended to be an expendable spacecraft. Supporting Earth-launch vehicles [ edit ] As of the early mission concepts outlined by NASA in May 2020 and refined by the HLS contract award in July 2021, the primary Earth-launch vehicles planned to support the Artemis program will include the NASA Space Launch System for the Orion vehicle , the Falcon Heavy for various components of the Lunar Gateway , [ 146 ] and the Starship HLS configuration for the eventual delivery of the HLS vehicle . Other standard SpaceX Starships may be used later to meet other and yet to be determined crew and/or cargo handling mission needs. [ 147 ] Additional launch vehicles will also be employed later for CLPS cargo services. The European Ariane 6 has been proposed to be part of the program in July 2019. [ 148 ] The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) module and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) of the Gateway , which were previously planned for the SLS Block 1B , [ 149 ] will now fly together on a Falcon Heavy in 2027. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] [ 152 ] The Gateway will be supported and resupplied by approximately 28 commercial cargo missions launched by undetermined commercial launch vehicles. [ 153 ] The Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) will be in charge of resupply missions. [ 153 ] GLS has also contracted for the construction of a resupply vehicle, Dragon XL, capable of remaining docked to the Gateway for one year of operations, providing and generating its own power while docked, and capable of autonomous disposal at the end of its mission. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] In May 2019, the plan was for components of a crewed lunar lander to be deployed to the Gateway on commercial launchers before the arrival of the first crewed mission, Artemis III . [ 156 ] An alternative approach where the HLS and Orion dock together directly was discussed. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] As late as mid-2019, NASA considered use of Delta IV Heavy and Falcon Heavy to launch a crewed Orion mission given SLS delays. [ 159 ] Given the complexity of conversion to a different vehicle, the agency ultimately decided to use only the SLS to launch astronauts. [ 9 ] Launch vehicles Launch vehicle Missions Payload Estimated cost per launch First launch LEO TLI SLS Block 1 Crew transportation 95 t 27 t US$2 billion November 16, 2022 [ 4 ] SLS Block 1B Crew transportation , I-HAB Gateway Module 105 t 42 t US$2 billion In development (2028) SLS Block 2 Crew transportation , Heavy payloads 130 t 45 t US$2 billion In development (after 2029) Falcon Heavy Dragon XL launches, two Gateway modules, VIPER (cancelled) 63.8 t US$150 million (expendable) [ 160 ] February 6, 2018 [ 161 ] Vulcan Centaur CLPS missions 27.2 t 12.1 t US$82–200 million January 8, 2024 [ 162 ] Falcon 9 CLPS missions 22.8 t US$62 million [ 163 ] June 4, 2010 [ 164 ] Electron CAPSTONE 0.3 t US$7.5 million [ 165 ] [ 166 ] May 25, 2017 [ 167 ] Starship Starship HLS, heavy CLPS payloads 200 t [ 168 ] 200 t [ a ] US$2 million (goal) [ 169 ] [ b ] April 20, 2023 [ 170 ] Ariane 6 Argonaut 21.6 t 8.6 t €115 million [ 171 ] [ 172 ] July 9, 2024 [ 173 ] [ 174 ] New Glenn Blue Moon 45 t 7 t $68 million January 16, 2025 [ 175 ] ^ requires refueling in LEO ^ Per launch. May require refueling launches LEO: Low Earth Orbit TLI: Trans-Lunar Injection Space Launch System [ edit ] Main article: Space Launch System The planned evolution of the Space Launch System , the primary launch vehicle for Orion The Space Launch System (SLS) is a United States super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle , which has been under development since its announcement in 2011. The SLS is the main Earth-launch vehicle of the Artemis lunar program, as of March 2021 [update] . NASA is required by the U.S. Congress to use SLS Block 1, which will be powerful enough to lift a payload of 95 metric tons (209,000 lb) to low Earth orbit (LEO), and will launch Artemis I , II , and III . [ 176 ] [ 177 ] [ 178 ] Starting in 2028, Block 1B is intended to debut the Exploration Upper Stage (EUS) and launch the notional Artemis IV–VII. [ 179 ] [ 180 ] Starting in 2029, Block 2 is planned to replace the initial Shuttle-derived boosters with advanced boosters and would have a LEO capability of more than 130 metric tons (290,000 lb), again as required by Congress. [ 181 ] Block 2 is intended to enable crewed launches to Mars . [ 7 ] The SLS will launch the Orion spacecraft and use the ground operations capabilities and launch facilities at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida . The SLS for Artemis I on its mobile launcher, getting ready for a wet dress rehearsal ahead of launch In March 2019, the Trump administration released its Fiscal Year 2020 Budget Request for NASA. This budget did not initially include any money for the Block 1B and Block 2 variants of SLS, but later a request for a budget increase of $1.6 billion towards SLS, Orion, and crewed landers was made. Block 1B is now intended to debut on Artemis IV and will be used mainly for co-manifested crew transfers and logistics rather than constructing the Gateway as initially planned. An uncrewed Block 1B was planned to launch the Lunar Surface Asset in 2028, the first lunar outpost of the Artemis program, but now that launch has been moved to a commercial launcher. [ 182 ] Block 2 development will most likely start in the late 2020s after NASA is regularly visiting the lunar surface and shifts focus towards Mars. [ 183 ] In October 2019, NASA authorized Boeing to purchase materials in bulk for more SLS rockets ahead of the announcement of a new contract. The contract was expected to support up to ten core stages and eight Exploration Upper Stages for the SLS 1B to transfer heavy payloads of up to 40 metric tons on a lunar trajectory. [ 184 ] SpaceX Starship [ edit ] Main article: SpaceX Starship The SpaceX Starship system is a fully-reusable super heavy-lift Earth-launch system which is under development. It consists of a first-stage booster named Super-Heavy and a second-stage space vehicle which is generally named Starship and which will have several variants. A Starship HLS mission will use three variants: a tanker, a propellant depot, and the Starship HLS itself which will be designed only for lunar landings and takeoffs, and not for Earth landings. Some variants will be able to return to Earth for reuse. The second-stage Starships are fully self-contained spacecraft, complete with their own propulsion systems. The combined Starship system using standard Starship variants for its second-stage is planned to launch crews and cargo, which may then be used to support the various developmental needs of the Artemis program, and also to support the needs of other NASA and SpaceX programs. The SpaceX Starship is also qualified to be bid for Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) launches, and in 2021 was the winning NASA bid for a crewed lunar landing. [ 185 ] [ 186 ] [ 187 ] Falcon Heavy [ edit ] Main article: Falcon Heavy The SpaceX Falcon Heavy is a partially reusable heavy-lift launcher. It will be used to launch the first two Gateway modules into NRHO. [ 188 ] It will also be used to launch the Dragon XL spacecraft on supply missions to Gateway, [ 189 ] and it is qualified to be bid for other launches under the CLPS program. It was selected under CLPS to launch the VIPER mission, though this mission was later cancelled in 2024 due to cost overruns and mission delays. [ 190 ] CLPS launchers [ edit ] Under the CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Service) program, qualified CLPS vendors can use any launcher that meets their mission requirements. Space vehicles [ edit ] Orion [ edit ] Main article: Orion (spacecraft) NASA's Orion spacecraft undergoing final tests Orion is a class of partially reusable spacecraft to be used in the Artemis program. The spacecraft consists of a Crew Module (CM) space capsule designed by Lockheed Martin and the European Service Module (ESM) manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space . Capable of supporting a crew of six beyond low Earth orbit , Orion is equipped with solar panels , an automated docking system , and glass cockpit interfaces modeled after those used in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner . It has a single AJ10 engine for primary propulsion, and others including reaction control system engines. Although designed to be compatible with other launch vehicles , Orion is primarily intended to launch atop a Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, with a tower launch escape system . Orion was originally conceived by Lockheed Martin as a proposal for the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to be used in NASA's Constellation program . Following the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010, Orion was heavily redesigned for use in NASA's Journey to Mars initiative; later named Moon to Mars. The SLS replaced the Ares I as Orion's primary launch vehicle, and the service module was replaced with a design based on the European Space Agency 's Automated Transfer Vehicle . A development version of Orion's CM was launched in 2014 during Exploration Flight Test-1 , while at least four test articles were produced. By 2022, three flight-worthy Orion crew modules have been built, with an additional one ordered, for use in the Artemis program; the first of these was due to be launched on 30 November 2020, however Artemis I did not launch until 16 November 2022. A conceptual advanced Gateway depicting what Gateway could look like in the late 2020s. Dragon XL [ edit ] This section is an excerpt from SpaceX Dragon § Dragon XL . [ edit ] Rendering of the proposed SpaceX Dragon XL On March 27, 2020, SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL resupply spacecraft to carry pressurized and unpressurized cargo, experiments and other supplies to NASA's planned Lunar Gateway under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] The equipment delivered by Dragon XL missions could include sample collection materials, spacesuits and other items astronauts may need on the Gateway and on the surface of the Moon , according to NASA . It will launch on SpaceX Falcon Heavy rockets from LC-39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida . [ 193 ] The Dragon XL will stay at the Gateway for 6 to 12 months at a time, when research payloads inside and outside the cargo vessel could be operated remotely, even when crews are not present. [ 193 ] Its payload capacity is expected to be more than 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb) to lunar orbit. [ 194 ] There is no requirement for a return to Earth. At the end of the mission the Dragon XL must be able to undock and dispose of the same mass it can bring to the Gateway, by moving the spacecraft to a heliocentric orbit. [ 195 ] On February 22, 2023, NASA discussed the Dragon XL's development for the first time since its 2020 unveiling, with Mark Wiese, NASA's manager of deep space logistics for the Gateway program, answering during a panel at SpaceCom that NASA has been working with SpaceX to run a series of studies to refine the Dragon XL design and examine cargo configurations and other capabilities that could be enabled by the spacecraft. [ 196 ] Wiese also elaborated that Dragon XL would be used for initial missions, and stating that \"[NASA] talked to [SpaceX] about Starship evolution and how it all worked together, but we’re not there yet because it's still in a development phase\" insinuating that Starship will eventually replace Dragon XL once it completes development. [ 196 ] On March 29, 2024, NASA released an article outlining the mission of Artemis IV , which is to be the first crewed mission to the Lunar Gateway slated for 2028, stating that the Dragon XL will be used to resupply and carry science experiments, however, Artemis IV will take place concurrently with a Starship launch which will dock at the Gateway and help with the assembly of the station. [ 197 ] Human Landing System (HLS) [ edit ] The Human Landing System (HLS) is a critical component of the Artemis mission. This system transports crew from lunar orbit (the Gateway or an Orion spacecraft) to the lunar surface, acts as a lunar habitat, and then transports the crew back to lunar orbit. In 2021 SpaceX's Starship HLS program was awarded the winning NASA bid for the production of a crewed lunar landing vehicle. [ 185 ] In May 2023, Blue Origin was selected as the second provider for lunar lander services. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Early developmental history of the HLS vehicle [ edit ] Main article: Artemis HLS development history Bidding for NASA's HLS lunar landing vehicle began in 2019. At that time, NASA elected to have the HLS designed and developed by commercial vendors. Eleven competing contracts were initially awarded in May 2019. In April 2020, NASA awarded three competing design contracts, and in April 2021, NASA selected the Starship HLS to proceed to development and production. Separate from its early design and development program for its first HLS spacecraft, NASA retains multiple smaller contracts to study various elements of alternative HLS designs. Starship HLS [ edit ] Main article: Starship HLS The Starship Human Landing System (Starship HLS) was the winner selected by NASA for potential use for long-duration crewed lunar landings as part of NASA's Artemis program. [ 48 ] [ 200 ] Starship HLS is a variant of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft optimized to operate on and around the Moon. In contrast to the Starship spacecraft from which it derives, Starship HLS will never re-enter an atmosphere, so it does not have a heat shield or flight control surfaces . In contrast to other proposed HLS designs that used multiple stages, the entire spacecraft will land on the Moon and will then launch from the Moon. Like other Starship variants, Starship HLS has Raptor engines mounted at the tail as its primary propulsion system. However, when it is within \"tens of meters\" of the lunar surface during descent and ascent, it will use high-thrust methane/oxygen RCS thrusters located mid-body instead of the Raptors to avoid raising dust via plume impingement . A solar array located on the nose below the docking port provides electrical power. Elon Musk stated that Starship HLS would be able to deliver \"potentially up to 200 tons\" to the lunar surface. Starship HLS would be launched to Earth orbit using the SpaceX Super Heavy booster , and would use a series of tanker spacecraft to refuel the Starship HLS vehicle in Earth orbit for lunar transit and lunar landing operations, a capability referred to as orbital refueling . Starship HLS would then boost itself to lunar orbit for rendezvous with Orion. In the mission concept, a NASA Orion spacecraft would carry a NASA crew to the lander, where they would depart and descend to the surface of the Moon. After lunar surface operations, Starship HLS would lift off from the lunar surface acting as a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle and return the crew to Orion. Blue Origin HLS [ edit ] Main article: Blue Moon (spacecraft) On May 19, 2023, NASA announced an additional contract to Blue Origin to develop a second crewed lunar lander, which will make its first crewed flight as part of the Artemis V mission. Blue Moon is smaller than the SpaceX HLS lander, having only 20 tons of payload capacity. The lander is fueled with a combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants. [ 201 ] Lunar Gateway [ edit ] Main article: Lunar Gateway NASA's Gateway is an in-development mini-space station in lunar orbit intended to serve as a solar-powered communication hub, science laboratory, short-term habitation module, and holding area for rovers and other robots. [ 202 ] While the project is led by NASA, the Gateway is meant to be developed, serviced, and used in collaboration with commercial and international partners: Canada ( Canadian Space Agency ) (CSA), Europe ( European Space Agency ) (ESA), and Japan ( JAXA ). Phase 1 early Gateway with Power and Propulsion Element (left), Habitation and Logistics Outpost (center foreground), and cargo spacecraft (center background) depicted The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) started development at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory during the now canceled Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM). The original concept was a robotic, high performance solar electric spacecraft that would retrieve a multi-ton boulder from an asteroid and bring it to lunar orbit for study. [ 203 ] When ARM was canceled, the solar electric propulsion was repurposed for the Gateway. [ 204 ] [ 205 ] The PPE will allow access to the entire lunar surface and act as a space tug for visiting craft. [ 206 ] It will also serve as the command and communications center of the Gateway. [ 207 ] [ 208 ] The PPE is intended to have a mass of 8–9 tonnes and the capability to generate 50 kW [ 209 ] of solar electric power for its ion thrusters , which can be supplemented by chemical propulsion. [ 210 ] The Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO), [ 211 ] [ 212 ] also called the Minimal Habitation Module (MHM) and formerly known as the Utilization Module, [ 213 ] will be built by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems (NGIS). [ 214 ] [ 215 ] A single Falcon Heavy equipped with an extended fairing [ 216 ] will launch the PPE together with the HALO in 2027. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] The HALO is based on a Cygnus Cargo resupply module [ 214 ] to the outside of which radial docking ports, body mounted radiators (BMRs), batteries and communications antennae will be added. The HALO will be a scaled-down habitation module, [ 217 ] yet, it will feature a functional pressurized volume providing sufficient command, control, and data handling capabilities, energy storage and power distribution, thermal control, communications and tracking capabilities, two axial and up to two radial docking ports, stowage volume, environmental control and life support systems to augment the Orion spacecraft and support a crew of four for at least 30 days. [ 215 ] Gateway design architecture as of October 2020, which includes European, Japanese, and Russian modules In late October 2020, NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) finalized an agreement to collaborate in the Gateway program. ESA will provide a habitat module in partnership with JAXA (I-HAB) and a refueling module ( ESPRIT ). In return, Europe will have three flight opportunities to launch crew aboard the Orion crew capsule, for which they will provide the service module. [ 218 ] [ 219 ] In 2024, the HALO module reached substantial completion and entered into the stress test phase, following successful completion of which it will be shipped from Europe to the US in preparation for configuration with the PPE module and launch. [ 220 ] Astronauts [ edit ] On January 10, 2020, NASA's 22nd astronaut group , nicknamed the \"Turtles\", graduated and were assigned to the Artemis program. The group includes two Canadian Space Agency (CSA) astronauts. The group earned their nickname from the prior astronaut group, \" The 8-Balls \", as is a tradition dating back to \" The Mercury Seven \" in 1962 which subsequently provided the \" Next Nine \" with their nickname. They were given this name, for the most part, because of Hurricane Harvey . Some of the astronauts will fly on the Artemis missions to the Moon and may be part of the first crew to fly to Mars. [ 221 ] Artemis team [ edit ] On December 9, 2020, vice president Mike Pence announced the first group of 18 astronauts (all American, including 9 male and 9 female from different backgrounds), the 1st Artemis team , who could be selected as astronauts of early missions of the Artemis program: [ 222 ] Joe Acaba Kayla Barron Raja Chari Matthew Dominick Victor Glover Warren Hoburg Jonny Kim Christina Koch Kjell Lindgren Nicole Mann Anne McClain Jessica Meir Jasmin Moghbeli Kathleen Rubins Frank Rubio Scott Tingle Jessica Watkins Stephanie Wilson Chief Astronaut Reid Wiseman said in August 2022, however, that all 42 active members of the NASA Astronaut Corps , and the ten more training as NASA Astronaut Group 23 , are eligible for Artemis II and later flights. [ 223 ] Planned surface operations [ edit ] An artist's rendition of an Artemis astronaut wearing the xEMU spacesuit and xPLS life support backpack during an EVA on the Moon The Artemis Base Camp will support missions of up to two months and will be used to study technologies to use on future Moon or Mars bases, and then future stationary modules may be used regularly for decades to come through both Government and commercial programs. Most probably it will be a site that has already been visited by prior robotic missions. It will consist of three main modules: The Surface Habitat (SH) modules, which is the initial dwelling structure and a surface home base for the first residents of the Moon. The Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), which is an unpressurized rover cart for transporting suited astronauts and cargo around in the vicinity of the Base. The Pressurized Rovers (PR), a pressurized vehicle complete with small backup habitation facilities, thus enabling multi-day and longer-range explorations tens of kilometers away from the Base. [ 224 ] Transportation on the Moon [ edit ] Landing zone [ edit ] In 2022, NASA has identified 13 candidate regions near the lunar South Pole for initial landing and inspection missions. [ 225 ] Ground transportation development [ edit ] Main article: Lunar Terrain Vehicle NASA's baseline Lunar Terrain Vehicle In February 2020, NASA released two requests for information regarding both a crewed and uncrewed unpressurized surface rover. The latter, Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) would be prepositioned by a CLPS vehicle before the Artemis III mission. It would be used to transport crews around the exploration site and serve a similar function to the Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle . In July 2020, NASA established a program office for the rover at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. [ 226 ] NASA has specified its need for a Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) that has a cargo capacity of 800 kg, traversal distances of up to 20 km without battery recharging, continuous operations for 8 hours within a 24-hour period, the ability to survive the lunar night, and the ability to traverse grades as steep as ±20 degrees. [ 224 ] On April 3, 2024, NASA announced that Intuitive Machines , Lunar Outpost and Venturi Astrolab are the three companies developing the LTV in a 12-month feasibility and demo phase. [ 227 ] A source selection statement by NASA provided further details on cost and overall feasibility on April 9, 2024. The Intuitive Machines proposal was for $1.692 billion, Lunar Outpost for $1.727 billion and Astrolab for $1.928 billion to develop the vehicle. [ 228 ] Shelter building construction [ edit ] See also: NASA lunar outpost concepts and Moonbase A render of the Artemis Base Camp The Artemis Base Camp is the proposed lunar base to be established at the end of the 2020s. The Base camp is to be located in the south pole region near the two adjacent Shackleton and de Gerlache craters, [ 229 ] due to this area's wide variety of lunar geography and also due to the abundance of water ice that is believed to exist in the lunar soils of the crater floors. The environs of these craters fall under the guidelines of the Outer Space Treaty . [ 226 ] [ 230 ] Foundational Surface Habitat [ edit ] A render of the Foundational Surface Habitat (stationary configuration) Most of the information about the Surface Habitat (SH) modules comes from studies and launch manifests which include a reference to its launch. It will be commercially built and commercially launched in the early 2030s along with the Pressurized Vehicle (PV) . [ 231 ] The SH was formerly referred to as the Artemis Surface Asset. Launch plans as of February 2020 [update] showed that landing it on the surface would be similar to the HLS. The SH would be sent to the Gateway where it would then be attached to a descent stage and subsequently transported to the lunar surface with a commercial launcher and lander. It would use the same lunar transfer stage as used for the HLS. Other designs from 2019 envisioned it being launched from an SLS Block 1B as a single unit and landing directly on the surface. It would then be hooked up to a surface power system launched by a CLPS mission and tested by the Artemis VI crew. [ 226 ] [ 232 ] The Italian Space Agency signed a contract with Thales Alenia Space in late 2023 for the Multi Purpose Habitat, which may become the second module for the Artemis Base Camp. [ 233 ] [ 234 ] Resource prospecting and research programs [ edit ] As of February 2020, a lunar stay during a Phase 1 Artemis mission will be about seven days and will have five extravehicular activities (EVA). A notional concept of operations, i.e., a hypothetical but possible plan, would include the following: On Day 1 of the stay, astronauts touchdown on the Moon but do not conduct an EVA. Instead, they prepare for the EVA scheduled for the next day, in what is referred to as \"The Road to EVA\". [ 235 ] On Day 2, the astronauts open the hatch on the Human Landing System and embark on EVA 1, which will be six hours long. It will include collecting a contingency sample, conducting public affairs activities, deploying the experiment package, and acquiring samples. The astronauts will stay close to the landing site on this first EVA. EVA 2 begins on day 3. The astronauts characterize and collect samples from permanently shadowed regions . Unlike the previous EVA, the astronauts will go farther from the landing site, up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), and up and down slopes of 20°. [ 235 ] Day 4 will not include an EVA, but Day 5 will. EVA 3 may include activities such as collecting samples from an ejecta blanket. Day 6 will have the two astronauts deploy a geotechnical instrument alongside an environmental monitoring station for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) . Day 7 will have the final and shortest EVA. This EVA will last one hour, rather than the others' six hours in duration from egress to ingress, and mostly comprises preparations for the lunar ascent, including jettisoning hardware. Once the final EVA is concluded, the astronauts will return to the Human Landing System and the vehicle will launch from the surface and join up with Orion/Gateway. [ 235 ] Pressurized rover (\"Mobile Habitat\") [ edit ] Main article: Lunar Cruiser NASA Habitable Mobility Platform based on the past Constellation Space Exploration Vehicle The Pressurized Rover (PR) is a large, pressurized module used to enable crewed operation across large distances and live for multiple days. NASA had developed multiple pressurized rovers including what was formerly called the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV). This rover was built for the Constellation program and was fabricated and then tested. In the 2020 flight manifest it was later referred to as the \"Mobile Habitat\" suggesting it could fill a similar role to the ILREC Lunar Bus . It would be ready for the crew to use on the surface but could also be autonomously controlled from the Gateway or other locations. Mark Kirasich, who is the acting director of NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems, has stated that the current plan is to partner with JAXA and Toyota to develop a closed cabin rover to support crews for up to 14 days (currently known as Lunar Cruiser ). \"It's very important to our leadership at the moment to involve JAXA in a major surface element\", he said. \"... The Japanese, and their auto industry, have a very strong interest in rover-type things. So, there was an idea to—even though we have done a lot of work—to let the Japanese lead development of a pressurized rover. So right now, that's the direction we're heading in\". In regard to the PR, senior-lunar-scientist Clive Neal said \"Under Constellation, NASA had a sophisticated rover put together. It's pretty sad if it's never going to get to the Moon\". However Neal also said that he understands the different mission objectives between the Constellation Program and those of the Artemis Program, and the need of the Artemis Program to focus more on international collaboration. [ 226 ] [ 236 ] [ 237 ] [ 238 ] [ 239 ] On April 9, 2024, it was announced that JAXA and NASA had signed an agreement stipulating that Japan would join the pressurized rover collaboration venture and would design, develop, and operate a rover for crewed and uncrewed exploration of the Moon. In return, NASA will provide the launch and delivery of the rover to the Moon, as well as providing seats for two Japanese astronaut missions to the lunar surface, with the goal of these astronauts being the first non-Americans to travel to the Moon's surface. The pressurized rover is planned to accommodate two astronauts for up to 30 days outside. NASA plans to use the pressurized rover from Artemis VII and subsequent missions, over an approximate 10 year lifespan. [ 240 ] Specialized lunar equipment development [ edit ] Artemis space suits [ edit ] xEMU suit for lunar surface extravehicular activity (EVA) OCSS suit for launch and reentry The Artemis program will make use of two types of space suit revealed in October 2019: the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) , [ 241 ] and the Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS). [ 242 ] On August 10, 2021, a NASA Office of Inspector General audit reported a conclusion that the spacesuits would not be ready until April 2025 at the earliest, likely delaying the mission from the then planned late 2024. [ 243 ] In response to the IG report, SpaceX indicated that they could provide the suits. [ 244 ] Commercial spacesuits [ edit ] NASA published a draft RFP to procure commercially-produced spacesuits in order to meet the 2024 schedule. [ 245 ] On June 2, 2022, NASA announced that commercially produced spacesuits would be developed by Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace . [ 246 ] In early 2024, the development reached the critical design and test phase. [ 247 ] [ 248 ] Artemis flights [ edit ] Main article: List of Artemis missions The Orion capsule in the Pacific Ocean , following the Exploration Flight Test-1 mission Orion testing [ edit ] Further information: Orion (spacecraft) § Flights A prototype version of the Orion Crew Module was launched on Exploration Flight Test-1 on December 5, 2014 [ 249 ] [ 250 ] atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Its reaction control system and other components were tested during two medium Earth orbits , reaching an apogee of 5,800 km (3,600 mi) and crossing the Van Allen radiation belts before making a high-energy re-entry at 32,000 km/h (20,000 mph). [ 251 ] [ 252 ] The Ascent Abort-2 test on July 2, 2019 tested the final iteration of the launch abort system on a 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) Orion boilerplate at maximum aerodynamic load, [ 253 ] [ 254 ] [ 255 ] using a custom Minotaur IV -derived launch vehicle built by Orbital ATK . [ 255 ] [ 256 ] Artemis I–VI [ edit ] As of November 2022 [update] , all crewed Artemis missions will launch on the Space Launch System from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B . Current plans call for some supporting hardware to be launched on other vehicles and from other launch pads. Mission Patch Launch date Crew Launch vehicle Lander vehicle Duration Goal Status Artemis I November 16, 2022 [ 69 ] [ 4 ] — SLS Block 1 — 25 days [ 257 ] Uncrewed lunar orbit and return Success Artemis II April 2026 [ 258 ] Reid Wiseman Victor Glover Christina Koch Jeremy Hansen SLS Block 1 — 10 days [ 259 ] 4-person lunar flyby Planned Artemis III Mid-2027 [ 258 ] TBA SLS Block 1 Starship HLS [ 14 ] ~30 days 4-person lunar orbit with 2-person lunar landing. [ 260 ] Planned Artemis IV September 2028 [ 13 ] TBA SLS Block 1B Starship HLS [ 14 ] ~30 days Delivery of the I-HAB module to the Lunar Gateway , followed by a 4-person lunar landing. [ 14 ] [ 261 ] Planned Artemis V March 2030 [ 15 ] TBA SLS Block 1B Blue Moon [ 262 ] ~30 days Delivery of the ESPRIT module to the Lunar Gateway, followed by a 2-person lunar landing with the Lunar Terrain Vehicle . Planned Artemis VI March 2031 [ 15 ] TBA SLS Block 1B TBA ~30 days Delivery of the Crew and Science Airlock module to the Lunar Gateway, followed by a lunar landing. Planned Artemis VII–X [ edit ] In November 2021, plans to return humans to the Moon in 2024 were cancelled, and the Artemis III mission was delayed until at least 2025. It has since been delayed to mid-2027. [ 263 ] Artemis VII is expected to deliver a crew of four astronauts to a surface lunar outpost known as the Foundation Habitat, along with the Mobile Habitat, which is expected to occur in March 2032. [ 13 ] [ 182 ] The Foundation Habitat would be launched back to back with the Mobile Habitat by an undetermined super heavy launcher [ 182 ] and would be used for extended crewed lunar surface missions. [ 182 ] [ 264 ] [ 265 ] Prior to each crewed Artemis mission, payloads to the Gateway , such as refueling depots and expendable elements of the lunar lander, would be deployed by commercial launch vehicles. [ 266 ] [ 265 ] The most updated manifest includes missions suggested in NASA's timelines that have not been designed or funded from Artemis IV to IX. [ 267 ] [ 268 ] [ 182 ] [ 231 ] Mission Launch date Crew Launch vehicle Duration Goal (proposed) Artemis VII March 2032 [ 15 ] TBA SLS Block 1B ~30 days Lunar landing with the delivery of the Habitable Mobility Platform ( Lunar Cruiser ) to the surface Artemis VIII 2033 TBA SLS Block 1B ~60 days Lunar landing with the delivery of lunar surface logistics and the Foundational Surface Habitat Artemis IX 2034 TBA SLS Block 2 ~60 days Lunar landing with the delivery of additional lunar surface logistics Artemis X 2035 (planned) TBA SLS Block 2 <180 days Lunar landing – a long-term stay with the delivery of lunar surface logistics Support missions schedule [ edit ] Artemis support missions are robotic missions flown through the CLPS program and Gateway program , and HLS demo and delivery missions. [ 182 ] Date [ a ] Mission objective Mission name Launch vehicle Outcome Notes June 28, 2022 [ 269 ] NRHO Pathfinder mission CAPSTONE [ 270 ] CAPSTONE Electron Operational January 8, 2024 [ 271 ] [ 272 ] First launch of the Peregrine lunar lander by Astrobotic Technology [ 273 ] Peregrine Mission One Vulcan Centaur [ 274 ] Failure Landing abandoned due to excessive propellant leak and Sun-pointer issue in the lander. [ 275 ] February 15, 2024 [ 276 ] First launch of the Intuitive Machines Nova-C Odysseus lunar lander by Intuitive Machines [ 146 ] IM-1 Odysseus lander Falcon 9 Success January 15, 2025 First launch of the Firefly Aerospace Blue Ghost lunar lander Blue Ghost M1 Falcon 9 En route January 2025 [ 277 ] Second launch of an Intuitive Machines Nova-C lunar lander by Intuitive Machines . One of the payloads is PRIME-1 , an ISRU demonstration. IM-2 Athena Falcon 9 Scheduled September 2025 [ 278 ] Astrobotic Technology 's Griffin lunar lander [ 279 ] Griffin Mission-1 Falcon Heavy [ 280 ] Planned October 2025 [ 281 ] Third launch of an Intuitive Machines Nova-C lunar lander by Intuitive Machines IM-3 Falcon 9 Scheduled 2025 [ 5 ] Starship HLS uncrewed HLS Demo landing mission HLS Uncrewed Lunar Demo Starship Planned 2026 [ 5 ] [ 13 ] Delivery of Starship HLS for Artemis III HLS Crewed Lunar Demo Starship Planned 2027 [ 150 ] Launch of the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) as an integrated assembly. First two Lunar Gateway modules. PPE-HALO Falcon Heavy Planned Artemis support mission 2028 [ 15 ] Lunar Surface Power Demo; Lunar Surface Scaled Construction Demo 1; ISRU Pilot Excavator; ISRU Subscale Demo TO LIFT-1 Commercial launch vehicle Planned 2028 [ 13 ] Delivery of Starship HLS for Artemis IV Sustaining HLS Crewed Lunar Demo Starship Planned 2028 [ 13 ] Blue Moon uncrewed HLS Demo landing mission Sustaining HLS Uncrewed Lunar Demo New Glenn Planned 2029 [ 13 ] Delivery of Blue Moon HLS for Artemis V Sustaining HLS Crewed Lunar Demo New Glenn Planned 2031 [ 13 ] Delivery of TBD HLS for Artemis VI TBD Sustaining HLS Services Commercial launch vehicle Planned 2032 [ 15 ] Lunar Surface Scaled Construction Demo 2; Autonomous Robotics Demo; Deployable Hopper 2; ISRU Subscale Demo 2 TO LIFT-2 Commercial launch vehicle Planned 2032 [ 15 ] Fission Surface Power Demo Artemis support mission Commercial launch vehicle Planned 2032 [ 15 ] Delivery of TBD HLS for Artemis VII TBD Sustaining HLS Services Commercial launch vehicle Planned ^ All future dates in the table are NET Criticism [ edit ] The Artemis program has received criticism from several space professionals. Mark Whittington, who is a contributor to The Hill and an author of several space exploration studies, stated in an article that the \"lunar orbit project doesn't help us get back to the Moon\". [ 282 ] Aerospace engineer, author, and Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin has voiced his distaste for the Gateway , which is part of the Artemis program as of 2027. He presented an alternative approach to a 2024 crewed lunar landing called \"Moon Direct\", a successor to his proposed Mars Direct . His vision phases out the SLS and Orion, replacing them with the SpaceX launch vehicles and SpaceX Dragon 2 . It proposes using a heavy ferry/lander that would be refueled on the lunar surface via in situ resource utilization and transfer the crew from LEO to the lunar surface. The concept bears a heavy resemblance to NASA's own Space Transportation System proposal from the 1970s. [ 283 ] Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin disagrees with NASA's current goals and priorities, including their plans for a lunar outpost. He questioned the benefit of the idea to \"send a crew to an intermediate point in space, pick up a lander there and go down\". However, Aldrin expressed support for Robert Zubrin's \"Moon Direct\" concept which involves lunar landers traveling from Earth orbit to the lunar surface and back. [ 284 ] The program attracted criticism for the fact that at least 15 launches will be required to refuel HLS in orbit per crewed mission. [ 285 ] In 2024, SpaceX's Jennifer Jensen stated on a call that Starship HLS will require ten launches. [ 286 ] Gallery [ edit ] Outdated planned missions of the Artemis program Phase 1 Gateway with an Orion and HLS docked on Artemis III A concept of surface operations Artemis I flight path SLS atop the MLP being carried by the CT out of the VAB at Kennedy Space Center in Florida See also [ edit ] Spaceflight portal Solar System portal United States portal Apollo program – 1961–1972 American crewed lunar exploration program Chinese Lunar Exploration Program – Chinese crewed lunar program with international partners e.g. Russia. Colonization of the Moon – Settlement on the Moon List of Artemis Astronauts Commercial Crew Development – NASA space program partnership with space companies Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Deep Space Transport – Crewed interplanetary spacecraft concept First Lunar Outpost – Crewed lunar program proposal from the SEI International Lunar Research Station – Planned International lunar base International Lunar Resources Exploration Concept – Lunar exploration concept List of crewed spacecraft List of missions to the Moon NASA Astronaut Group 23 Space policy of the United States Coordinated Lunar Time Notes [ edit ] ^ An Orion capsule was flown in 2014, but not the entire Orion spacecraft. ^ If an ancillary mission has already delivered Gateway to NRHO, HLS and Orion will dock to Gateway instead of to each other. References [ edit ] ^ a b NASA Office of Inspector General (November 15, 2021). NASA's Management of the Artemis Missions (PDF) (Report). NASA . p. 21 . 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Retrieved August 13, 2024 . ^ Whittington, Mark (June 16, 2018). \"NASA's unnecessary US$504 million lunar orbit project doesn't help us get back to the Moon\" . The Hill . Archived from the original on November 14, 2019 . Retrieved December 20, 2018 . ^ \"Moon Direct – The New Atlantis\" . April 28, 2021. Archived from the original on April 28, 2021 . Retrieved June 26, 2022 . ^ Foust, Jeff (November 16, 2018). \"Advisory group skeptical of NASA lunar exploration plans\" . SpaceNews . Retrieved December 20, 2018 . ^ \"At Least 15 Starship Launches Needed to Execute Artemis III Lunar Landing\" . Retrieved December 30, 2023 . ^ Foust, Jeff [@jeff_foust] (January 9, 2024). \"Best part of the just-completed briefing: question about how many refueling launches will be needed for Starship HLS missions. NASA and SpaceX give a long answer without a number. Bill Nelson steps in, asks for that number. [\"Ten-ish\" says SpaceX's Jensen.]\" ( Tweet ) . Retrieved January 10, 2024 – via Twitter . Sources [ edit ] Bridenstine, Jim; Grush, Loren (May 17, 2019). \"NASA administrator on new Moon plan: \"We're doing this in a way that's never been done before\" \" . The Verge. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019 . Retrieved May 25, 2019 . Berger, Eric (May 20, 2019a). \"NASA's full Artemis plan revealed: 37 launches and a lunar outpost\" . Ars Technica. Archived from the original on May 23, 2019 . Retrieved May 23, 2019 . Foust, Jeff (May 24, 2019a). \"NASA Has a Full Plate of Lunar Missions Before Astronauts Can Return to Moon\" . Space.com. Archived from the original on May 25, 2019 . Retrieved May 25, 2019 . Grush, Loren (October 3, 2018). \"This is Lockheed Martin's idea for a reusable lander that carries people and cargo to the Moon\" . The Verge. Archived from the original on October 3, 2018 . Retrieved October 18, 2018 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain : \"S.3729 – National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2010\" . United States Congress. October 11, 2010. Archived from the original on April 28, 2021 . Retrieved January 9, 2020 . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artemis program . Moon to Mars portal at NASA Artemis program at NASA Monthly report Archived October 4, 2020, at the Wayback Machine by the Exploration Systems Development (ESD) View Artemis I in NASA's Eyes Eyes on the Solar System – NASA/JPL v t e Artemis program List of missions astronauts Commercial Lunar Payload Services Exploration Ground Systems Gateway Logistics Services Missions Uncrewed Artemis I (2022) Peregrine Mission One (2024) IM-1 (2025) Blue Ghost Mission 1 (2025) IM-2 (2025) Crewed Artemis II (2026) Artemis III (2027) Artemis IV (2028) Artemis V (2030) Agencies NASA Australian Space Agency Canadian Space Agency European Space Agency Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency State Space Agency of Ukraine Korea Aerospace Research Institute New Zealand Space Agency Brazilian Space Agency Saudi Space Commission Facilities Cape Canaveral Space Force Station SLC-37B SLC-40 SLC-41 SLC-46 Kennedy Space Center LC-39A LC-39B Mission Control Center SpaceX Starbase Vandenberg Space Force Base SLC-3E SLC-4E White Sands Missile Range Rockets Electron Falcon 9 Falcon Heavy Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur Ariane 6 New Glenn Crewed spacecraft Human Landing System Starship Blue Moon Lunar Gateway Lunar Terrain Vehicle Orion European Service Module Robotic spacecraft Blue Ghost CAPSTONE HERACLES Argonaut Nova-C Peregrine VIPER rover Category v t e Orion spacecraft Components Crew module European Service Module Orbital Maneuvering System Programs Artemis Constellation Exploration Ground Systems Launch vehicles Delta IV Heavy Orion Abort Test Booster Space Launch System Precursors or Cancelled Crew Exploration Vehicle Ares V Ares I Missions Abort tests MLAS (Jul 2009) Pad Abort-1 (May 2010) Ascent Abort-2 (Jul 2019) Uncrewed Ares I-X (Oct 2009) Exploration Flight Test-1 (Dec 2014) Artemis I (Nov 2022) Crewed Artemis II (2025) Artemis III (2026) Artemis IV (2028) Artemis V (2030) Future missions indicated in italics . 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Lunar Exploration Program Russian Luna-Glob Soviet Crewed Luna Lunokhod Zond Active missions Orbiters ARTEMIS CAPSTONE Chandrayaan-2 Chang'e 5-T1 Danuri Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Queqiao 1 and 2 Tiandu-1 2 ICUBE-Q Landers Chang'e 3 4 Blue Ghost Mission 1 Hakuto-R Mission 2 Rovers Yutu-2 TENACIOUS Flybys ArgoMoon Past missions Crewed landings Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 ( List of Apollo astronauts ) Orbiters Apollo 8 10 Artemis I Chang'e 1 2 5 Chandrayaan-1 3 Clementine Explorer 35 49 GRAIL Hiten LADEE Longjiang-2 Luna 10 11 12 14 19 22 Lunar Orbiter 1 2 3 4 5 Lunar Prospector PFS-1 PFS-2 SMART-1 SELENE (Kaguya, Okina, Ouna) Impactors LCROSS Luna 2 Moon Impact Probe Ranger 4 6 7 8 9 Landers Apollo Lunar Module ×6 Chang'e 5 6 Luna 9 13 16 17 20 21 23 24 Surveyor 1 3 5 6 7 Chandrayaan-3 EagleCam IM-1 SLIM Rovers Lunar Roving Vehicle Apollo 15 16 17 Lunokhod 1 2 Yutu Pragyan 2 3 LEV-1 LEV-2 ( Sora-Q ) Jinchan Sample return Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 Luna 16 20 24 Chang'e 5 6 Failed landings Beresheet Emirates Lunar Mission Hakuto-R M1 Luna 5 7 8 15 18 25 OMOTENASHI Surveyor 2 4 Vikram Peregrine Mission One Flybys 4M Apollo 13 Chang'e 5-T1 Geotail Galileo ICE Longjiang-1 Luna 1 3 4 6 LunaH-Map Lunar Flashlight Lunar IceCube LunIR Mariner 10 NEA Scout Nozomi Pioneer 4 Ranger 5 STEREO TESS WMAP Wind Zond 3 5 6 7 8 PAS-22 Planned missions Artemis II (2026) III (2027) IV (2028) V (2030) Lunar Gateway CLPS IM-2 (2025) Lunar Trailblazer Luna-Glob 26 (2027) 27 (2028) 28 (2030) 29 (2030s) 30 (2030s) 31 (2030s) CLEP Chang'e 7 (2026) 8 (2028) Chandrayaan 4 (2027) 5 (LUPEX) (2028) KLEP Korean lunar lander (2032) Others Beresheet 2 (2025) ispace M3 (2026) Lunar Pathfinder (2026) DESTINY + (2028) Cislunar Explorers (2020s) CU-E 3 (2020s) MoonRanger (2020s) Argonaut M1 (2031) International Lunar Research Station (2030s) Proposed missions Robotic ALINA Artemis-7 Blue Moon BOLAS Garatéa-L ISOCHRON LunaNet Lunar Crater Radio Telescope McCandless Moon Diver Crewed DSE-Alpha Boeing Lunar Lander Lockheed Martin Lunar Lander Lunar Orbital Station Cancelled / concepts Altair Baden-Württemberg 1 #dearMoon project European Lunar Explorer First Lunar Outpost International Lunar Network LEO LK Lunar-A Lunar Lander Lunar Mission One Lunar Observer Lunokhod 3 MoonLITE MoonRise OrbitBeyond Project Harvest Moon Prospector Resource Prospector SELENE-2 Ukrselena XL-1 VIPER Related Colonization of the Moon Google Lunar X Prize List of lunar probes List of missions to the Moon List of artificial objects on the Moon List of species that have landed on the Moon Lunar resources Apollo 17 Moon mice Moon landing conspiracy theories Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings Apollo 11 anniversaries List of crewed lunar landers Missions are ordered by launch date. Crewed missions are in italics . v t e United States human spaceflight programs Active Artemis International Space Station Commercial Crew Completed X-15 Mercury Gemini Apollo Apollo Applications Skylab Apollo–Soyuz Space Shuttle Shuttle- Mir Canceled Constellation Dyna-Soar HL-20 Personnel Launch System Man in Space Soonest Manned Orbiting Laboratory Nova Orbital Space Plane Orion (nuclear) NASP Freedom Portals : Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Outer space Solar System United States\n",
      "First space station launched and operated by NASA (1973–1979) For other uses, see Skylab (disambiguation) . Skylab Skylab as photographed by its departing final crew ( Skylab 4 ). Skylab program insignia Station statistics COSPAR ID 1973-027A SATCAT no. 6633 Call sign Skylab Crew 3 per mission (9 total) Launch May 14, 1973 17:30:00 UTC ( 51 years ago) Carrier rocket Saturn V AS-513 Launch pad Kennedy LC-39A Reentry July 11, 1979 16:37:00 UTC Mission status Deorbited Mass 168,750 pounds (76,540 kg) [ 1 ] w/o Apollo CSM Length 82.4 feet (25.1 m) w/o Apollo CSM Width 55.8 feet (17.0 m) w/ one solar panel Height 36.3 feet (11.1 m) w/ telescope mount Diameter 21.67 feet (6.61 m) Pressurised volume 12,417 cubic feet (351.6 m 3 ) Atmospheric pressure 5.0 pounds per square inch (34 kPa) Oxygen 74%, nitrogen 26% [ 2 ] Perigee altitude 269.7 miles (434.0 km) Apogee altitude 274.6 miles (441.9 km) Orbital inclination 50.0° Orbital period 93.4 minutes Orbits per day 15.4 Days in orbit 2249 days (6.6 years) Days occupied 171 days No. of orbits 34,981 Distance travelled ~890,000,000 mi (1,400,000,000 km) Statistics as of Re-entry July 11, 1979 Configuration Skylab configuration as planned Part of a series on the United States space program NASA U.S. Space Force Human spaceflight programs Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Space Shuttle Shuttle– Mir International Space Station Commercial Crew Constellation Artemis Lunar Gateway Robotic spaceflight programs CRS Explorers GLS Large Strategic Lunar Orbiter Lunar Precursor Mariner Mars Exploration New Millennium Pioneer Planetary Missions Discovery New Frontiers Solar System Exploration Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Vanguard Viking Voyager X-37 NASA Astronaut Corps Mercury Gemini Apollo Space Shuttle Spaceports Eastern Range Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Kennedy Space Center Wallops Flight Facility Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska Western Range Vandenberg Space Force Base Space launch vehicles Alpha Antares Atlas V Electron Falcon 9 Falcon Heavy LauncherOne Minotaur I III IV V C New Glenn New Shepard Pegasus Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur National security space United States Space Force National Reconnaissance Office United States Space Command Civil space Department of Energy national laboratories Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service Office of Space Commerce Space Weather Prediction Center Department of State Office of Space Affairs Office of Science and Technology Policy Commercial space industry Astra Ball Aerospace Bigelow Aerospace Blue Origin Boeing Firefly Aerospace Lockheed Martin Raytheon Rocket Lab Northrop Grumman Sierra Nevada Corporation SpaceX SSL United Launch Alliance Virgin Galactic Virgin Orbit v t e Skylab was the United States' first space station , launched by NASA , [ 3 ] occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three trios of astronaut crews: Skylab 2 , Skylab 3 , and Skylab 4 . Operations included an orbital workshop, a solar observatory , Earth observation and hundreds of experiments . Skylab's orbit eventually decayed and it disintegrated in the atmosphere on July 11, 1979, scattering debris across the Indian Ocean and Western Australia . Overview [ edit ] As of 2025, [update] Skylab was the only space station operated exclusively by the United States. A permanent station was planned starting in 1988, but its funding was canceled and U.S. participation shifted to the International Space Station in 1993. Skylab had a mass of 199,750 pounds (90,610 kg) with a 31,000-pound (14,000 kg) Apollo command and service module (CSM) attached [ 4 ] and included a workshop, a solar observatory, and several hundred life science and physical science experiments. It was launched uncrewed into low Earth orbit by a Saturn V rocket modified to be similar to the Saturn INT-21 , with the S-IVB third stage not available for propulsion because the orbital workshop was built out of it. This was the final flight for the rocket more commonly known for carrying the crewed Apollo Moon landing missions. [ 5 ] Three subsequent missions delivered three-astronaut crews in the Apollo CSM launched by the smaller Saturn IB rocket. Configuration [ edit ] Skylab included the Apollo Telescope Mount (a multi-spectral solar observatory), a multiple docking adapter with two docking ports, an airlock module with extravehicular activity (EVA) hatches, and the orbital workshop, the main habitable space inside Skylab. Electrical power came from solar arrays and fuel cells in the docked Apollo CSM. The rear of the station included a large waste tank, propellant tanks for maneuvering jets, and a heat radiator. Astronauts conducted numerous experiments aboard Skylab during its operational life. Component data Component Mass [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 4 ] Habitable volume Length Diameter Image lb kg ft 3 m 3 ft m ft m Payload shroud 25,600 11,600 — 56.0 17.1 21.6 6.6 Apollo Telescope Mount 24,500 11,100 — 14.7 4.5 11.3 3.4 Multiple Docking Adapter 12,000 5,400 1,140 32 17.3 5.3 10.5 3.2 Airlock module 49,000 22,000 613 17.4 17.6 5.4 10.5 3.2 Saturn V instrument unit 4,600 2,100 — 3.0 0.91 21.6 6.6 Orbital Workshop 78,000 35,000 [ 4 ] 9,550 270 [ 4 ] 48.1 14.7 21.6 6.6 Total in orbit 168,750 76,540 12,417 351.6 82.4 25.1 21.6 6.6 Apollo CSM 31,000 14,000 210 5.9 36.1 11.0 12.8 3.9 Total with CSM 199,750 90,610 [ 4 ] 12,627 357.6 118.5 36.1 21.6 6.6 Operations [ edit ] For the final two crewed missions to Skylab, NASA assembled a backup Apollo CSM/Saturn IB in case an in-orbit rescue mission was needed, but this vehicle was never flown. The station was damaged during launch when the micrometeoroid shield tore away from the workshop, taking one of the main solar panel arrays with it and jamming the other main array. This deprived Skylab of most of its electrical power and also removed protection from intense solar heating, threatening to make it unusable. The first crew deployed a replacement heat shade and freed the jammed solar panels to save Skylab. This was the first time that a repair of this magnitude was performed in space. The Apollo Telescope significantly advanced solar science, and observation of the Sun was unprecedented. Astronauts took thousands of photographs of Earth, and the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) viewed Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible , infrared , and microwave spectral regions. The record for human time spent in orbit was extended beyond the 23 days set by the Soyuz 11 crew aboard Salyut 1 to 84 days by the Skylab 4 crew. Later plans to reuse Skylab were stymied by delays in the development of the Space Shuttle, and Skylab's decaying orbit could not be stopped. Skylab's atmospheric reentry began on July 11, 1979, [ 7 ] amid worldwide media attention. Before re-entry, NASA ground controllers tried to adjust Skylab's orbit to minimize the risk of debris landing in populated areas, [ 8 ] targeting the south Indian Ocean, which was partially successful. Debris showered Western Australia , and recovered pieces indicated that the station had disintegrated lower than expected. [ 9 ] As the Skylab program drew to a close, NASA's focus had shifted to the development of the Space Shuttle. NASA space station and laboratory projects included Spacelab , Shuttle- Mir , and Space Station Freedom , which was merged into the International Space Station. Background [ edit ] Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun , science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke , and other early advocates of crewed space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in Collier's magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled \" Man Will Conquer Space Soon! \". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75 m) in diameter that would rotate to generate artificial gravity and require a fleet of 7,000 short tons (6,400 metric tons) space shuttles for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station. [ 10 ] The development of the transistor , the solar cell , and telemetry , led in the 1950s and early 1960s to uncrewed satellites that could take photographs of weather patterns or enemy nuclear weapons and send them to Earth. A large station was no longer necessary for such purposes, and the United States Apollo program to send men to the Moon chose a mission mode that would not need in-orbit assembly. A smaller station that a single rocket could launch retained value, however, for scientific purposes. [ 11 ] Early studies [ edit ] Von Braun's sketch of a Space Station based on conversion of a Saturn V stage, 1964 In 1959, von Braun, head of the Development Operations Division at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency , submitted his final Project Horizon plans to the U.S. Army . The overall goal of Horizon was to place men on the Moon, a mission that would soon be taken over by the rapidly forming NASA. Although concentrating on the Moon missions, von Braun also detailed an orbiting laboratory built out of a Horizon upper stage, [ 12 ] an idea used for Skylab. [ 13 ] A number of NASA centers studied various space station designs in the early 1960s. Studies generally looked at platforms launched by the Saturn V, followed up by crews launched on Saturn IB using an Apollo command and service module , [ 14 ] or a Gemini capsule [ 15 ] on a Titan II-C , the latter being much less expensive in the case where cargo was not needed. Proposals ranged from an Apollo-based station with two to three men, or a small \"canister\" for four men with Gemini capsules resupplying it, to a large, rotating station with 24 men and an operating lifetime of about five years. [ 16 ] A proposal to study the use of a Saturn S-IVB as a crewed space laboratory was documented in 1962 by the Douglas Aircraft Company . [ 17 ] Air Force plans [ edit ] The Department of Defense (DoD) and NASA cooperated closely in many areas of space. [ 18 ] In September 1963, NASA and the DoD agreed to cooperate in building a space station. [ 19 ] The DoD wanted its own crewed facility, however, [ 20 ] and in December 1963 it announced Manned Orbital Laboratory (MOL), a small space station primarily intended for photo reconnaissance using large telescopes directed by a two-person crew. The station was the same diameter as a Titan II upper stage , and would be launched with the crew riding atop in a modified Gemini capsule with a hatch cut into the heat shield on the bottom of the capsule. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] MOL competed for funding with a NASA station for the next five years [ 23 ] and politicians and other officials often suggested that NASA participate in MOL or use the DoD design. [ 20 ] The military project led to changes to the NASA plans so that they would resemble MOL less. [ 19 ] Development [ edit ] NASA's Skylab pre-flight orbital workshop overview, circa 1972 The floor grating of Skylab under construction Apollo Applications Program [ edit ] Main article: Apollo Applications Program NASA management was concerned about losing the 400,000 workers involved in Apollo after landing on the Moon in 1969. [ 24 ] A reason von Braun, head of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center during the 1960s, advocated a smaller station after his large one was not built was that he wished to provide his employees with work beyond developing the Saturn rockets, which would be completed relatively early during Project Apollo. [ 25 ] NASA set up the Apollo Logistic Support System Office , originally intended to study various ways to modify the Apollo hardware for scientific missions. The office initially proposed a number of projects for direct scientific study, including an extended-stay lunar mission which required two Saturn V launchers, a \"lunar truck\" based on the Lunar Module (LM), a large, crewed solar telescope using an LM as its crew quarters, and small space stations using a variety of LM or CSM-based hardware. Although it did not look at the space station specifically, over the next two years the office would become increasingly dedicated to this role. In August 1965, the office was renamed, becoming the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). [ 26 ] As part of their general work, in August 1964 the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) presented studies on an expendable lab known as Apollo X , short for Apollo Extension System . Apollo X would have replaced the LM carried on the top of the S-IVB stage with a small space station slightly larger than the CSM's service area, containing supplies and experiments for missions between 15 and 45 days' duration. Using this study as a baseline, a number of different mission profiles were looked at over the next six months. Wet workshop [ edit ] Main article: Wet workshop An early \" wet workshop \" version of Skylab In November 1964, von Braun proposed a more ambitious plan to build a much larger station built from the S-II second stage of a Saturn V. His design replaced the S-IVB third stage with an aeroshell, primarily as an adapter for the CSM on top. Inside the shell was a 10 feet (3.0 m) cylindrical equipment section. On reaching orbit, the S-II second stage would be vented to remove any remaining hydrogen fuel, then the equipment section would be slid into it via a large inspection hatch. This became known as a \" wet workshop \" concept, because of the conversion of an active fuel tank. The station filled the entire interior of the S-II stage's hydrogen tank, with the equipment section forming a \"spine\" and living quarters located between it and the walls of the booster. This would have resulted in a very large 33 by 45 feet (10 by 14 m) living area. Power was to be provided by solar cells lining the outside of the S-II stage. [ 27 ] One problem with this proposal was that it required a dedicated Saturn V launch to fly the station. At the time the design was being proposed, it was not known how many of the then-contracted Saturn Vs would be required to achieve a successful Moon landing. However, several planned Earth-orbit test missions for the LM and CSM had been canceled, leaving a number of Saturn IBs free for use. Further work led to the idea of building a smaller \"wet workshop\" based on the S-IVB, launched as the second stage of a Saturn IB. A number of S-IVB-based stations were studied at MSC from mid-1965, which had much in common with the Skylab design that eventually flew. An airlock would be attached to the hydrogen tank, in the area designed to hold the LM , and a minimum amount of equipment would be installed in the tank itself in order to avoid taking up too much fuel volume. Floors of the station would be made from an open metal framework that allowed the fuel to flow through it. After launch, a follow-up mission launched by a Saturn IB would launch additional equipment, including solar panels, an equipment section and docking adapter, and various experiments. Douglas Aircraft Company , builder of the S-IVB stage, was asked to prepare proposals along these lines. The company had for several years been proposing stations based on the S-IV stage, before it was replaced by the S-IVB. [ 28 ] On April 1, 1966, MSC sent out contracts to Douglas, Grumman , and McDonnell for the conversion of an S-IVB spent stage, under the name Saturn S-IVB spent-stage experiment support module (SSESM). [ 29 ] In May 1966, astronauts voiced concerns over the purging of the stage's hydrogen tank in space. Nevertheless, in late July 1966, it was announced that the Orbital Workshop would be launched as a part of Apollo mission AS-209, originally one of the Earth-orbit CSM test launches, followed by two Saturn I/CSM crew launches, AAP-1 and AAP-2. The Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) remained AAP's chief competitor for funds, although the two programs cooperated on technology. NASA considered flying experiments on MOL or using its Titan IIIC booster instead of the much more expensive Saturn IB. The agency decided that the Air Force station was not large enough and that converting Apollo hardware for use with Titan would be too slow and too expensive. [ 30 ] The DoD later canceled MOL in June 1969. [ 31 ] Dry workshop [ edit ] Design work continued over the next two years, in an era of shrinking budgets. [ 32 ] (NASA sought US$450 million for Apollo Applications in fiscal year 1967, for example, but received US$42 million.) [ 33 ] In August 1967, the agency announced that the lunar mapping and base construction missions examined by the AAP were being canceled. Only the Earth-orbiting missions remained, namely the Orbital Workshop and Apollo Telescope Mount solar observatory . The success of Apollo 8 in December 1968, launched on the third flight of a Saturn V, made it likely that one would be available to launch a dry workshop. [ 34 ] Later, several Moon missions were canceled as well, originally to be Apollo missions 18 through 20 . The cancellation of these missions freed up three Saturn V boosters for the AAP program. Although this would have allowed them to develop von Braun's original S-II-based mission, by this time so much work had been done on the S-IV-based design that work continued on this baseline. With the extra power available, the wet workshop was no longer needed; [ 35 ] the S-IC and S-II lower stages could launch a \"dry workshop\", with its interior already prepared, directly into orbit. Habitability [ edit ] Jumping and flying in weightlessness A dry workshop simplified plans for the interior of the station. [ 36 ] Industrial design firm Raymond Loewy /William Snaith recommended emphasizing habitability and comfort for the astronauts by providing a wardroom for meals and relaxation [ 37 ] and a window to view Earth and space, although astronauts were dubious about the designers' focus on details such as color schemes. [ 38 ] Habitability had not previously been an area of concern when building spacecraft due to their small size and brief mission durations, but the Skylab missions would last for months. [ 39 ] NASA sent a scientist on Jacques Piccard 's Ben Franklin submarine in the Gulf Stream in July and August 1969 to learn how six people would live in an enclosed space for four weeks. [ 40 ] Astronauts were uninterested in watching movies on a proposed entertainment center or in playing games, but they did want books and individual music choices. [ 38 ] Food was also important; early Apollo crews complained about its quality, and a NASA volunteer found it intolerable to live on the Apollo food for four days on Earth. Its taste and composition were unpleasant, in the form of cubes and squeeze tubes. Skylab food significantly improved on its predecessors by prioritizing palatability over scientific needs. [ 41 ] For sleeping in space , each astronaut had a private area the size of a small walk-in closet , with a curtain, sleeping bag, and locker. [ 42 ] Designers also added a shower [ 43 ] [ 44 ] and a toilet [ 45 ] [ 46 ] for comfort and to obtain precise urine and feces samples for examination on Earth. [ 47 ] The waste samples were so important that they would have been priorities in any rescue mission . [ 48 ] Skylab did not have recycling systems such as the conversion of urine to drinking water; it also did not dispose of waste by dumping it into space. The S-IVB's 73,280 liters (16,120 imp gal; 19,360 U.S. gal) liquid oxygen tank below the Orbital Work Shop was used to store trash and wastewater, passed through an airlock . Operational history [ edit ] Completion and launch [ edit ] Launch of the modified Saturn V rocket carrying the Skylab space station On August 8, 1969, the McDonnell Douglas Corporation received a contract for the conversion of two existing S-IVB stages to the Orbital Workshop configuration. One of the S-IV test stages was shipped to McDonnell Douglas for the construction of a mock-up in January 1970. The Orbital Workshop was renamed \"Skylab\" in February 1970 as a result of a NASA contest. [ 49 ] The actual stage that flew was the upper stage of the AS-212 rocket (the S-IVB stage, S-IVB 212). The mission computer used aboard Skylab was the IBM System/4Pi TC-1, a relative of the AP-101 Space Shuttle computers. The Saturn V with serial number SA-513, originally produced for the Apollo program – before the cancellation of Apollo 18, 19, and 20 – was repurposed and redesigned to launch Skylab. [ 50 ] The Saturn V's third stage was removed and replaced with Skylab, but with the controlling Instrument Unit remaining in its standard position. Skylab was launched on May 14, 1973, by the modified Saturn V. The launch is sometimes referred to as Skylab 1. Severe damage was sustained during launch and deployment, including the loss of the station's micrometeoroid shield/sun shade and one of its main solar panels . Debris from the lost micrometeoroid shield further complicated matters by becoming tangled in the remaining solar panel, preventing its full deployment and thus leaving the station with a huge power deficit. [ 51 ] Immediately following Skylab's launch, Pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center was deactivated, and construction proceeded to modify it for the Space Shuttle program, originally targeting a maiden launch in March 1979 . The crewed missions to Skylab would occur using a Saturn IB rocket from Launch Pad 39B. Skylab 1 was the last uncrewed launch from LC-39A until February 19, 2017, when SpaceX CRS-10 was launched from there. Crewed missions [ edit ] Skylab 3's Saturn IB at night, July 1973 Skylab in orbit in 1973 as flown, docking ports in view Three crewed missions, designated Skylab 2 , Skylab 3 , and Skylab 4 , were made to Skylab in the Apollo command and service modules . The first crewed mission, Skylab 2, launched on May 25, 1973, atop a Saturn IB and involved extensive repairs to the station. The crew deployed a parasol-like sunshade through a small instrument port from the inside of the station, bringing station temperatures down to acceptable levels and preventing overheating that would have melted the plastic insulation inside the station and released poisonous gases. This solution was designed by Jack Kinzler , who won the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his efforts. The crew conducted further repairs via two spacewalks ( extravehicular activity or EVA). The crew stayed in orbit with Skylab for 28 days. Two additional missions followed, with the launch dates of July 28, 1973, (Skylab 3) and November 16, 1973, (Skylab 4), and mission durations of 59 and 84 days, respectively. The last Skylab crew returned to Earth on February 8, 1974. [ 52 ] In addition to the three crewed missions, there was a rescue mission on standby that had a crew of two, but could take five back down. Skylab 2: launched May 25, 1973 [ 53 ] Skylab 3: launched July 28, 1973 Skylab 4: launched November 16, 1973 Skylab 5: cancelled Skylab Rescue on standby Also of note was the three-man crew of Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT), who spent 56 days in 1972 at low-pressure on Earth to evaluate medical experiment equipment. [ 54 ] This was a spaceflight analog test in full gravity, but Skylab hardware was tested and medical knowledge was gained. Orbital operations [ edit ] Owen Garriott performing an EVA in 1973 Days in space Mission Skylab 2 28 Skylab 3 60 Skylab 4 84 Originally intended to be visited by one 28–day and two 56–day missions for a total of 140 days, [ 55 ] Skylab was ultimately occupied for 171 days and 13 hours during its three crewed expeditions, orbiting the Earth 2,476 times. Each of these extended the human record of 23 days for amount of time spent in space set by the Soviet Soyuz 11 crew aboard the space station Salyut 1 on June 30, 1971. Skylab 2 lasted 28 days, Skylab 3 –  56 days, and Skylab 4 –  84 days. Astronauts performed ten spacewalks, totaling 42 hours and 16 minutes. Skylab logged about 2,000 hours of scientific and medical experiments, 127,000 frames of film of the Sun and 46,000 of Earth. [ 56 ] Solar experiments included photographs of eight solar flares and produced valuable results [ 57 ] that scientists stated would have been impossible to obtain with uncrewed spacecraft. [ 58 ] The existence of the Sun's coronal holes was confirmed because of these efforts. [ 59 ] Many of the experiments conducted investigated the astronauts' adaptation to extended periods of microgravity . A typical day began at 6 a.m. Central Time Zone . [ 60 ] Although the toilet was small and noisy, both veteran astronauts –  who had endured earlier missions' rudimentary waste-collection systems –  and rookies complimented it. [ 61 ] [ 44 ] [ 62 ] The first crew enjoyed taking a shower once a week, but found drying themselves in weightlessness [ 62 ] and vacuuming excess water difficult; later crews usually cleaned themselves daily with wet washcloths instead of using the shower. Astronauts also found that bending over in weightlessness to put on socks or tie shoelaces strained their abdominal muscles. [ 63 ] Breakfast began at 7 a.m. Astronauts usually stood to eat, as sitting in microgravity also strained their abdominal muscles. They reported that their food –  although greatly improved from Apollo –  was bland and repetitive, and weightlessness caused utensils, food containers, and bits of food to float away; also, gas in their drinking water contributed to flatulence . After breakfast and preparation for lunch, experiments, tests and repairs of spacecraft systems and, if possible, 90 minutes of physical exercise followed; the station had a bicycle and other equipment, and astronauts could jog around the water tank. After dinner, which was scheduled for 6 p.m., crews performed household chores and prepared for the next day's experiments. Following lengthy daily instructions (some of which were up to 15 meters long) sent via teleprinter , the crews were often busy enough to postpone sleep. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] The station offered what a later study called \"a highly satisfactory living and working environment for crews\", with enough room for personal privacy. [ 66 ] Although it had a dart set , [ 67 ] playing cards , and other recreational equipment in addition to books and music players, the window with its view of Earth became the most popular way to relax in orbit. [ 68 ] Experiments [ edit ] Spider Anita flown aboard Skylab Prior to departure about 80 experiments were named, although they are also described as \"almost 300 separate investigations\". [ 69 ] Experiments were divided into six broad categories: Life science – human physiology , biomedical research ; circadian rhythms (mice, gnats) Solar physics and astronomy – sun observations (eight telescopes and separate instrumentation); Comet Kohoutek (Skylab 4); stellar observations; space physics Earth resources – mineral resources ; geology ; hurricanes ; land and vegetation patterns Material science – welding, brazing, metal melting; crystal growth ; water / fluid dynamics Student research – 19 different student proposals. Several experiments were commended by the crew, including a dexterity experiment and a test of web-spinning by spiders in low gravity. Other – human adaptability, ability to work, dexterity ; habitat design/operations. Because the solar scientific airlock – one of two research airlocks – was unexpectedly occupied by the \"parasol\" that replaced the missing meteorite shield, a few experiments were instead installed outside with the telescopes during spacewalks or shifted to the Earth-facing scientific airlock. Skylab 2 spent less time than planned on most experiments due to station repairs. On the other hand, Skylab 3 and Skylab 4 far exceeded the initial experiment plans, once the crews adjusted to the environment and established comfortable working relationships with ground control. The figure (below) lists an overview of most major experiments. [ 70 ] Skylab 4 carried out several more experiments, such as to observe Comet Kohoutek . [ 71 ] Overview of most major experiments Astronaut maneuvering equipment [ edit ] As a technology demonstration, the crew practiced flying the Automatically Stabilized Maneuvering Unit (ASMU) inside the spacious dome of the Orbital Workshop. Designed to enable astronauts to perform untethered movements in microgravity. [ 72 ] The ASMU tests established key piloting characteristics and capability base for the MMU systems used on the Space Shuttle missions. [ 73 ] Nobel Prize [ edit ] Riccardo Giacconi shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics for his study of X-ray astronomy , including the study of emissions from the Sun onboard Skylab, contributing to the birth of X-ray astronomy . [ 74 ] Film vaults and window radiation shield [ edit ] A labeled illustration of a Skylab film vault, from Skylab: A Guidebook (EP-107) by NASA Skylab had certain features to protect vulnerable technology from radiation . [ 75 ] The window was vulnerable to darkening, and this darkening could affect experiment S190. [ 75 ] As a result, a light shield that could be open or shut was designed and installed on Skylab. [ 75 ] To protect a wide variety of films, used for a variety of experiments and for astronaut photography , there were five film vaults. [ 75 ] There were four smaller film vaults in the Multiple Docking Adapter , mainly because the structure could not carry enough weight for a single larger film vault. [ 75 ] The orbital workshop could handle a single larger safe, which is also more efficient for shielding. [ 75 ] A later example of a radiation vault is the Juno Radiation Vault for the Juno Jupiter orbiter, launched in 2011, which was designed to protect much of the uncrewed spacecraft's electronics, using 1 cm thick walls of titanium . [ 76 ] The large vault in the orbital workshop had an empty mass of 2,398 pounds (1,088 kg). [ 75 ] The four smaller vaults had combined mass of 1,545 lb (701 kg). [ 75 ] The primary construction material of all five safes was aluminum. [ 75 ] When Skylab re-entered there was one 180 pounds (82 kg) chunk of aluminum found that was thought to be a door to one of the film vaults. [ 77 ] The large film vault was one of the heaviest single pieces of Skylab to re-enter Earth's atmosphere . [ 78 ] The Skylab film vault was used for storing film from various sources including the Apollo Telescope Mount solar instruments. [ 79 ] Six ATM experiments used film to record data, and over the course of the missions over 150,000 successful exposures were recorded. [ 79 ] The film canister had to be manually retrieved on crewed spacewalks to the instruments during the missions. [ 79 ] The film canisters were returned to Earth aboard the Apollo capsules when each mission ended, and were among the heaviest items that had to be returned at the end of each mission. [ 79 ] The heaviest canisters weighed 40 kg and could hold up to 16,000 frames of film. [ 79 ] Gyroscopes [ edit ] Skylab could change its attitude without using propellant by changing the spin of large gyroscopes. There were two types of gyroscopes on Skylab. Control-moment gyroscopes (CMG) could physically move the station, and rate gyroscopes measured the rate of rotation to find its orientation. [ 80 ] The CMG helped provide the fine pointing needed by the Apollo Telescope Mount, and to resist various forces that can change the station's orientation. [ 81 ] Some of the forces acting on Skylab that the pointing system needed to resist: [ 81 ] Gravity gradient Aerodynamic disturbance Internal movements of crew. The Skylab-A attitude and pointing control system has been developed to meet the high accuracy requirements established by the desired experiment conditions. Conditions must be maintained by the control system under the influence of external and internal disturbance torques, such as gravity gradient and aerodynamic disturbances and onboard astronaut motion. — Skylab Attitude and Pointing Control System (NASA Technical Note D-6068) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . [ 81 ] Skylab was the first large spacecraft to use big gyroscopes, capable of controlling its attitude. [ 82 ] The control could also be used to help point the instruments. [ 82 ] The gyroscopes took about ten hours to get spun up if they were turned off. [ 83 ] There was also a thruster system to control Skylab's attitude. [ 83 ] There were 9 rate-gyroscope sensors, 3 for each axis. [ 83 ] These were sensors that fed their output to the Skylab digital computer. [ 83 ] Two of three were active and their input was averaged, while the third was a backup. [ 83 ] From NASA SP-400 Skylab, Our First Space Station , \"each Skylab control-moment gyroscope consisted of a motor-driven rotor, electronics assembly, and power inverter assembly. The 21-inch-diameter (530 mm) rotor weighed 155 pounds (70 kg) and rotated at approximately 8950 revolutions per minute\". [ 84 ] There were three control moment gyroscopes on Skylab, but only two were required to maintain pointing. [ 84 ] The control and sensor gyroscopes were part of a system that help detect and control the orientation of the station in space. [ 84 ] Other sensors that helped with this were a Sun tracker and a star tracker . [ 84 ] The sensors fed data to the main computer, which could then use the control gyroscopes and or the thruster system to keep Skylab pointed as desired. [ 84 ] Shower [ edit ] Astronaut Jack Lousma in the shower with curtain partially down, July 1973 Conrad in the Skylab shower in 1973 Earth testing showing partially and fully enclosed positions of the shower curtain Skylab had a zero-gravity shower system in the work and experiment section of the Orbital Workshop [ 85 ] designed and built at the Manned Spaceflight Center . [ 54 ] It had a cylindrical curtain that went from floor to ceiling and a vacuum system to suck away water. [ 86 ] The floor of the shower had foot restraints. To bathe, the user coupled a pressurized bottle of warmed water to the shower's plumbing, then stepped inside and secured the curtain. A push-button shower nozzle was connected by a stiff hose to the top of the shower. [ 54 ] [ 87 ] The system was designed for about 6 pints (2.8 liters) of water per shower, [ 88 ] the water being drawn from the personal hygiene water tank. [ 54 ] The use of both the liquid soap and water was carefully planned out, with enough soap and warm water for one shower per week per person. [ 85 ] The first astronaut to use the space shower was Paul J. Weitz on Skylab 2, the first crewed mission. [ 85 ] He said, \"It took a fair amount longer to use than you might expect, but you come out smelling good\". [ 85 ] A Skylab shower took about two and a half hours, including the time to set up the shower and dissipate used water. [ 89 ] The procedure for operating the shower was as follows: [ 87 ] Fill up the pressurized water bottle with hot water and attach it to the ceiling Connect the hose and pull up the shower curtain Spray down with water Apply liquid soap and spray more water to rinse Vacuum up all the fluids and stow items. One of the big concerns with bathing in space was control of droplets of water so that they did not cause an electrical short by floating into the wrong area. [ 90 ] The vacuum water system was thus integral to the shower. The vacuum fed to a centrifugal separator, filter, and collection bag to allow the system to vacuum up the fluids. [ 87 ] Waste water was injected into a disposal bag which was in turn put in the waste tank. [ 54 ] The material for the shower enclosure was fire-proof beta cloth wrapped around hoops of 43 inches (1,100 mm) diameter; the top hoop was connected to the ceiling. [ 54 ] The shower could be collapsed to the floor when not in use. [ 87 ] Skylab also supplied astronauts with rayon terrycloth towels which had a color-coded stitching for each crew-member. [ 85 ] There were 420 towels on board Skylab initially. [ 85 ] A simulated Skylab shower was also used during the 56-day SMEAT simulation; the crew used the shower after exercise and found it a positive experience. [ 91 ] Cameras and film [ edit ] A view of the Skylab space station taken with a hand-held 70 mm Hasselblad camera using a 100 mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film Hurricane Ellen of 1973, as seen from Skylab The island of Crete as photographed on June 22, 1973, from Skylab Skylab as Skylab 2 mission departs There was a variety of hand-held and fixed experiments that used various types of film. In addition to the instruments in the ATM solar observatory, 35 and 70 mm film cameras were carried on board. An analog TV camera was carried that recorded video electronically. These electronic signals could be recorded to magnetic tape or be transmitted to Earth by radio signal. It was determined that film would fog up to due to radiation over the course of the mission. [ 75 ] To prevent this, film was stored in vaults. [ 75 ] Personal (hand-held) camera equipment: [ 92 ] Television camera Westinghouse color 25–150 mm zoom 16 mm film camera (Maurer), called the 16 mm Data Acquisition Camera. [ 92 ] The DAC was capable of very low frame rates, such as for engineering data films, and it had independent shutter speeds. [ 93 ] It could be powered from a battery or from Skylab itself. [ 93 ] It used interchangeable lenses, and various lens and also film types were used during the missions. [ 93 ] There were different options for frame rates : 2, 4, 6, 12 and 24 frames per second [ 92 ] Lenses available: 5, 10, 18, 25, 75, and 100 mm Films used: Ektachrome film SO-368 film SO-168 film Film for the DAC was contained in DAC film magazines, which contained up to 140 feet (42.7 m) of film. [ 94 ] At 24 frames per second this was enough for 4 minutes of filming, with progressively longer film times with lower frame rates such as 16 minutes at 6 frames per second. [ 93 ] The film had to be loaded or unloaded from the DAC in a photographic dark room . [ 93 ] 35 mm film cameras ( Nikon ) [ 92 ] There were 5 Nikon 35 mm film cameras on board, with 55 mm and 300 mm lenses. [ 95 ] They were specially modified Nikon F cameras [ 96 ] The cameras were capable of interchangeable lenses. [ 96 ] 35mm films included: [ 97 ] Ektachrome SO-368 SO-168 2485 type film 2443 type film 70 mm film camera ( Hasselblad ) [ 92 ] This had an electric data camera system with Reseau plate Films included 70 mm Ektachrome SO-368 film Lenses: 70 mm lens, 100 mm lens. [ 92 ] Experiment S190B was the Actron Earth Terrain Camera. [ 92 ] The S190A was the Multispectral Photographic Camera : [ 92 ] This consisted of six Itek 70 mm boresighted cameras Lenses were f/2.8 with a 21.2° field of view . There was also a Polaroid SX-70 instant camera, [ 98 ] and a pair of Leitz Trinovid 10 × 40 binoculars modified for use in space to aid in Earth observations. [ 92 ] The SX-70 was used to take pictures of the Extreme Ultraviolet monitor by Dr. Garriot, as the monitor provided a live video feed of the solar corona in ultraviolet light as observed by Skylab solar observatory instruments located in the Apollo Telescope Mount . [ 99 ] Computers [ edit ] Computational cycle of the Skylab computer program Skylab was controlled in part by a digital computer system, and one of its main jobs was to control the pointing of the station; pointing was especially important for its solar power collection and observatory functions. [ 100 ] The computer consisted of two actual computers, a primary and a secondary. The system ran several thousand words of code, which was also backed up on the Memory Load Unit (MLU). [ 100 ] The two computers were linked to each other and various input and output items by the workshop computer interface. [ 101 ] Operations could be switched from the primary to the backup, which were the same design, either automatically if errors were detected, by the Skylab crew, or from the ground. [ 100 ] The Skylab computer was a space-hardened and customized version of the TC-1 computer, a version of the IBM System/4 Pi , itself based on the System 360 computer. [ 100 ] The TC-1 had a 16,000-word memory based on ferrite memory cores, while the MLU was a read-only tape drive that contained a backup of the main computer programs. [ 100 ] The tape drive would take 11 seconds to upload the backup of the software program to a main computer. [ 102 ] The TC-1 used 16-bit words and the central processor came from the 4Pi computer. [ 102 ] There was a 16k and an 8k version of the software program. [ 103 ] The computer had a mass of 100 pounds (45.4 kg), and consumed about ten percent of the station's electrical power . [ 100 ] [ 101 ] Apollo Telescope Mount Digital Computer [ 102 ] Attitude and Pointing Control System (APCS) [ 100 ] Memory Load Unit (MLU). [ 100 ] After launch the computer is what the controllers on the ground communicated with to control the station's orientation. [ 104 ] When the sun-shield was torn off the ground staff had to balance solar heating with electrical production. [ 104 ] On March 6, 1978, the computer system was re-activated by NASA to control the re-entry. [ 105 ] The system had a user interface that consisted of a display, ten buttons, and a three-position switch. [ 106 ] Because the numbers were in octal (base-8), it only had numbers zero to seven (8 keys), and the other two keys were enter and clear. [ 106 ] The display could show minutes and seconds which would count down to orbital benchmarks, or it could display keystrokes when using the interface. [ 106 ] The interface could be used to change the software program. [ 106 ] The user interface was called the Digital Address System (DAS) and could send commands to the computer's command system. The command system could also get commands from the ground. [ 103 ] For personal computing needs Skylab crews were equipped with models of the then new hand-held electronic scientific calculator, which was used in place of slide-rules used on prior space missions as the primary personal computer. The model used was the Hewlett Packard HP 35 . [ 107 ] Some slide rules continued in use aboard Skylab, and a circular slide rule was at the workstation. [ 108 ] Plans for re-use after the last mission [ edit ] Skylab Rescue vehicle Apollo CSM being removed from its Saturn IB rocket after the last Skylab mission Calculations made during the mission, based on current values for solar activity and expected atmospheric density, gave the workshop just over nine years in orbit. Slowly at first – dropping 30 kilometers by 1980 – and then faster – another 100 kilometers by the end of 1982 – Skylab would come down, and some time around March 1983 it would burn up in the dense atmosphere. [ 109 ] After nearly 172 days, Skylab considerably exceeded its planned 140 day habitation. The station had held up relatively well, but its onboard supplies were low and its systems were beginning to degrade. One of the three control-moment gyroscopes (CMGs) failed 8 days into Skylab 4, [ 110 ] and by the end of the mission another was showing signs of impending failure. [ 111 ] With just a single CMG Skylab would be unable to control its attitude, and it was not possible to repair or replace one of the broken gyroscopes on-orbit. Virtually all of the prepackaged food launched with the station had been consumed, Skylab 4's mission extension from 56 to 84 days required the crew take an extra 28 days worth of food with them, [ 112 ] but there was still enough water to support three men for 60 days, and enough oxygen/nitrogen to support the same for 140 days. [ 113 ] A fourth crewed mission using an Apollo CSM was considered, which would have used the launch vehicle kept on standby for the Skylab Rescue mission. This would have been a 20-day mission to boost Skylab to a higher altitude and do more scientific experiments. [ 114 ] Another plan was to use a Teleoperator Retrieval System (TRS) launched aboard the Space Shuttle (then under development), to robotically re-boost the orbit. When Skylab 5 was cancelled, it was expected Skylab would stay in orbit until the 1980s, which was enough time to overlap with the beginning of Shuttle launches. Other options for launching TRS included the Titan III and Atlas-Agena . No option received the level of effort and funding needed for execution before Skylab's sooner-than-expected re-entry. [ 115 ] The Skylab 4 crew left a bag filled with supplies to welcome visitors, and left the hatch unlocked. [ 115 ] Skylab's internal systems were evaluated and tested from the ground, and effort was put into plans for re-using it, as late as 1978. [ 116 ] NASA discouraged any discussion of additional visits due to the station's age, [ 117 ] but in 1977 and 1978, when the agency still believed the Space Shuttle would be ready by 1979, it completed two studies on reusing the station. [ 115 ] [ 118 ] By September 1978, the agency believed Skylab was safe for crews, with all major systems intact and operational. [ 119 ] It still had 180 man-days of water and 420-man-days of oxygen, and astronauts could refill both; [ 115 ] the station could hold up to about 600 to 700 man-days of drinkable water and 420 man-days of food. [ 120 ] Before Skylab 4 left they did one more boost, running the Skylab thrusters for 3 minutes which added 11 km in height to its orbit. Skylab was left in a 433 by 455 km orbit on departure. At this time, the NASA-accepted estimate for its re-entry was nine years. [ 109 ] The studies cited several benefits from reusing Skylab, which one called a resource worth \"hundreds of millions of dollars\" [ 121 ] with \"unique habitability provisions for long duration space flight\". [ 122 ] Because no more operational Saturn V rockets were available after the Apollo program, four to five shuttle flights and extensive space architecture would have been needed to build another station as large as Skylab's 12,400 cubic feet (350 m 3 ) volume. [ 123 ] Its ample size – much greater than that of the shuttle alone, or even the shuttle plus Spacelab [ 124 ] – was enough, with some modifications, for up to seven astronauts [ 125 ] of both sexes, [ 126 ] and experiments needing a long duration in space; [ 121 ] even a movie projector for recreation was possible. [ 122 ] Proponents of Skylab's reuse also said repairing and upgrading Skylab would provide information on the results of long-duration exposure to space for future stations. [ 115 ] The most serious issue for reactivation was attitude control , as one of the station's gyroscopes had failed [ 109 ] and the attitude control system needed refueling; these issues would need EVA to fix or replace. The station had not been designed for extensive resupply. However, although it was originally planned that Skylab crews would only perform limited maintenance, [ 127 ] they successfully made major repairs during EVA, such as the Skylab 2 crew's deployment of the solar panel [ 128 ] and the Skylab 4 crew's repair of the primary coolant loop. [ 129 ] [ 130 ] [ 131 ] The Skylab 2 crew fixed one item during EVA by, reportedly, \"hit[ting] it with [a] hammer\". [ 132 ] Some studies also said, beyond the opportunity for space construction and maintenance experience, reactivating the station would free up shuttle flights for other uses, [ 121 ] and reduce the need to modify the shuttle for long-duration missions . [ 133 ] Even if the station were not crewed again, went one argument, it might serve as an experimental platform. [ 134 ] Shuttle mission plans [ edit ] Concept for proposed Skylab re-boost The reactivation would likely have occurred in four phases: [ 115 ] [ 135 ] An early Space Shuttle flight would have boosted Skylab to a higher orbit, adding five years of operational life. The shuttle might have pushed or towed the station, but attaching a space tug – the Teleoperator Retrieval System (TRS) – to the station would have been more likely, based on astronauts' training for the task. Martin Marietta won the contract for US$26 million to design the apparatus. [ 136 ] TRS would contain about three tons of propellant. [ 137 ] The remote-controlled booster had TV cameras and was designed for duties such as space construction and servicing and retrieving satellites the shuttle could not reach. After rescuing Skylab, the TRS would have remained in orbit for future use. Alternatively, it could have been used to de-orbit Skylab for a safe, controlled re-entry and destruction. [ 138 ] In two shuttle flights, Skylab would have been refurbished. In January 1982, the first mission would have attached a docking adapter and conducted repairs. In August 1983, a second crew would have replaced several system components. In March 1984, shuttle crews would have attached a solar-powered Power Expansion Package, refurbished scientific equipment, and conducted 30- to 90-day missions using the Apollo Telescope Mount and the Earth resources experiments. Over five years, Skylab would have been expanded to accommodate six to eight astronauts, with a new large docking/interface module, additional logistics modules, Spacelab modules and pallets, and an orbital vehicle space dock using the shuttle's external tank . The first three phases would have required about US$60 million in 1980s dollars, not including launch costs. Other options for launching TRS were Titan III or Atlas-Agena . [ 115 ] After departure [ edit ] Skylab in February 1974, as Skylab 4 departs After a boost of 6.8 miles (10.9 km) by Skylab 4's Apollo CSM before its departure in 1974, Skylab was left in a parking orbit of 269 miles (433 km) by 283 miles (455 km) [ 109 ] that was expected to last until at least the early 1980s, based on estimates of the 11-year sunspot cycle that began in 1976. [ 139 ] [ 140 ] In 1962, NASA first considered the potential risks of a space station reentry, but decided not to incorporate a retrorocket system in Skylab due to cost and acceptable risk. [ 141 ] The spent 49-ton Saturn V S-II stage which had launched Skylab in 1973 remained in orbit for almost two years, and made a controlled reentry on January 11, 1975. [ 142 ] The re-entry was mistimed however and deorbited slightly earlier in the orbit than planned. [ 143 ] Solar activity [ edit ] Skylab captured this view of the Sun Solar prominence recorded by Skylab on August 21, 1973 [ 144 ] British mathematician Desmond King-Hele of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) predicted in 1973 that Skylab would de-orbit and crash to Earth in 1979, sooner than NASA's forecast, because of increased solar activity . [ 140 ] Greater-than-expected solar activity [ 145 ] heated the outer layers of Earth's atmosphere and increased drag on Skylab. By late 1977, NORAD also forecast a reentry in mid-1979; [ 139 ] a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) scientist criticized NASA for using an inaccurate model for the second most-intense sunspot cycle in a century, and for ignoring NOAA predictions published in 1976. [ 146 ] The reentry of the USSR's nuclear powered Cosmos 954 in January 1978, and the resulting radioactive debris fall in northern Canada , drew more attention to Skylab's orbit. Although Skylab did not contain radioactive materials, the State Department warned NASA about the potential diplomatic repercussions of station debris. [ 147 ] Battelle Memorial Institute forecast that up to 25 tons of metal debris could land in 500 pieces over an area 4,000 miles (6,400 km) long and 1,000 miles (1,600 km) wide. The lead-lined film vault, for example, might land intact at 400 feet per second (120 m/s). [ 9 ] Ground controllers re-established contact with Skylab in March 1978 [ 148 ] and recharged its batteries. [ 8 ] Although NASA worked on plans to reboost Skylab with the Space Shuttle through 1978 and the TRS was almost complete, the agency gave up in December 1978 when it became clear that the shuttle would not be ready in time; [ 136 ] [ 149 ] its first flight, STS-1 , did not occur until April 1981. Also rejected were proposals to launch the TRS using one or two uncrewed rockets [ 115 ] or to attempt to destroy the station with missiles. [ 9 ] Re-entry and debris [ edit ] Further information: List of reentering space debris Equirectangular projection relief map of the Skylab re-entry site and final orbits, as predicted by NASA Fragment of Skylab recovered after its re-entry through Earth's atmosphere , on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center Skylab's impending demise in 1979 was an international media event, [ 150 ] with T-shirts and hats with bullseyes [ 9 ] and \"Skylab Repellent\" with a money-back guarantee, [ 151 ] wagering on the time and place of re-entry, and nightly news reports. The San Francisco Examiner offered a US$10,000 prize (equivalent to $42,000 today) [ 152 ] for the first piece of Skylab delivered to its offices; the rival San Francisco Chronicle offered US$200,000 ($840,000 today) [ 152 ] if a subscriber suffered personal or property damage. [ 8 ] A Nebraska neighborhood painted a target so that the station would have \"something to aim for\", a resident said. [ 151 ] The Examiner created the prize to compete with the Chronicle and its popular columnist Herb Caen . Publisher Reg Murphy was reluctant to pay the money, Jeff Jarvis recalled, but NASA assured Jarvis—Caen's counterpart at the Examiner —that the station would not hit land. [ 153 ] A report commissioned by NASA calculated that the odds were 1 in 152 of debris hitting any human, and odds of 1 in 7 of debris hitting a city of 100,000 people or more. [ 154 ] Special teams were readied to head to any country hit by debris. [ 8 ] The event caused so much panic in the Philippines that President Ferdinand Marcos appeared on national television to reassure the public. [ 140 ] A week before re-entry, NASA forecast that it would occur between July 10 and 14, with the 12th the most likely date, and the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) predicted the 14th. [ 140 ] In the hours before the event, ground controllers adjusted Skylab's orientation to minimize the risk of re-entry on a populated area. [ 8 ] They aimed the station at a spot 810 miles (1,300 km) south-southeast of Cape Town , South Africa, and re-entry began at approximately 16:37 UTC, July 11, 1979. [ 7 ] The station did not burn up as fast as NASA expected. Debris landed about 300 miles (480 km) east of Perth , Western Australia due to a four-percent calculation error, [ 7 ] and was found between Esperance, Western Australia and Rawlinna , from 31° to 34° S and 122° to 126° E, about 130–150 km (81–93 miles) radius around Balladonia, Western Australia . Residents and an airline pilot saw dozens of colorful flares as large pieces broke up in the atmosphere; [ 9 ] the debris landed in an almost unpopulated area, but the sightings still caused NASA to fear human injury or property damage. Don Lind, in a 2005 interview, reports no human injuries or deaths. [ 155 ] Stan Thornton found 24 pieces of Skylab at his home in Esperance. After obtaining his first passport, Thornton flew to San Francisco . After waiting one week for Marshall Space Flight Center to authenticate the wreckage, he collected the Examiner prize and another US$1,000 from a Philadelphia businessman who had flown Thornton's family and girlfriend there. [ 153 ] [ 7 ] [ 9 ] Analysis of the debris showed that the station had disintegrated 10 miles (16 km) above the Earth, much lower than expected. [ 9 ] The Shire of Esperance light-heartedly fined NASA A$400 for littering , [ 156 ] and while the fine was indeed written off three months later, it was nonetheless eventually paid on behalf of NASA in April 2009, after Scott Barley of Highway Radio raised the funds from his morning show listeners. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] After the demise of Skylab, NASA focused on the reusable Spacelab module, an orbital workshop that could be deployed with the Space Shuttle and returned to Earth. The next American major space station project was Space Station Freedom , which was merged into the International Space Station in 1993 and launched starting in 1998. Shuttle-Mir was another project and led to the US funding Spektr , Priroda , and the Mir Docking Module in the 1990s. Launchers, rescue, and cancelled missions [ edit ] Launchers [ edit ] Launch vehicles: [ 159 ] SA-513 (Skylab) SA-206 (Skylab 2) SA-207 (Skylab 3) SA-208 (Skylab 4) SA-209 (Skylab Rescue and Skylab 5, not launched) Skylab Revisit [ edit ] In 1971, before Skylab launched, NASA studied the potential of adding another mission to the three already planned. Called Skylab Revisit, two options were examined. First was an open ended mission that would launch within 30 days after Skylab 4, aiming to last 56 days. The second would visit the station a year after the last crew had left to determine the health and habitability of the station after two years in space. Neither option was rated highly. The first option's chance of mission success was considered uncertain at best, and the second's even worse given the expected dearth of food, water, and oxygen supplies and the degraded condition of Skylab's system after two years in orbit. [ 55 ] Skylab Rescue [ edit ] 5-person Apollo Command module for the Apollo Rescue mission SA-209 served on standby for Skylab 4 and ASTP , and has been preserved at the Kennedy Space Center rocket garden. There was a Skylab Rescue mission assembled for the second crewed mission to Skylab, but it was not needed. Another rescue mission was assembled for the last Skylab and was also on standby for ASTP. These missions used a backup Saturn IB rocket ( SA-209 ) and CSM module ( CSM-119 ). Skylab 5 [ edit ] Skylab 5 would have been a short 20-day mission in April 1974 to conduct more scientific experiments and use the Apollo's Service Propulsion System engine to boost Skylab into a higher orbit, supporting later station use by the Space Shuttle. [ 160 ] Vance Brand (commander), William B. Lenoir (science pilot), and Don Lind (pilot) would have been the crew for this mission, with Brand and Lind being the prime crew for the Skylab Rescue flights. [ 114 ] Brand and Lind also trained for a mission that would have aimed Skylab for a controlled deorbit . [ 155 ] Skylab 5 would have used the SA-209 rocket and CMS-119 on standby for Skylab Rescue. Upon its cancellation the rocket was put on display at NASA Kennedy Space Center. [ 159 ] Skylab B [ edit ] Main article: Skylab B In addition to the flown Skylab space station, a second flight-quality backup Skylab space station had been built during the program. NASA considered using it for a second station in May 1973 or later, to be called Skylab B (S-IVB 515), but decided against it. Launching another Skylab with another Saturn V rocket would have been very costly, and it was decided to spend this money on the development of the Space Shuttle instead. NASA transferred Skylab B to the National Air and Space Museum in 1975. On display in the museum's Space Hall since 1976, the orbital workshop has been slightly modified to permit viewers to walk through the living quarters. [ 161 ] [ 55 ] Engineering mock-ups [ edit ] A full-size 1G training mock-up once used for astronaut training is located at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center visitor center in Houston , Texas . Another training mockup, originally used at the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator (NBS), is at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama . Originally displayed indoors, it was subsequently stored outdoors for several years to make room for other exhibits. To mark the 40th anniversary of the Skylab program, the Orbital Workshop portion of the trainer was restored and moved into the Davidson Center in 2013. [ 162 ] [ 163 ] 1-G trainer at Space Center Houston . 1-G trainer at Space Center Houston . 1-G trainer at Space Center Houston . Trainer at the NBS, before display at the US Space & Rocket Center . Astronauts in the NBS deploying the Skylab twin-pole sunshade, 1973. Astronauts in the NBS deploying the Skylab protective solar sail, 1973. Trainer on display at the US Space & Rocket Center , 1982 Trainer on display at the US Space & Rocket Center , 2015 Trainer on display at the US Space & Rocket Center Mission designations [ edit ] The numerical identification of the crewed Skylab missions was the cause of some confusion. Originally, the uncrewed launch of Skylab and the three crewed missions to the station were numbered SL-1 through SL-4 . During the preparations for the crewed missions, some documentation was created with a different scheme – SLM-1 through SLM-3 – for those missions only. William Pogue credits Pete Conrad with asking the Skylab program director which scheme should be used for the mission patches , and the astronauts were told to use 1–2–3, not 2–3–4. By the time NASA administrators tried to reverse this decision, it was too late, as all the in-flight clothing had already been manufactured and shipped with the 1–2–3 mission patches. [ 164 ] Mission Emblem Commander Science Pilot Pilot Launch date Landing date Duration (days) Skylab 1 SL-1 uncrewed launch of space station 1973-05-14 17:30:00 UTC 1979-07-11 16:37:00 UTC 2248.96 Skylab 2 SL-2 ( SLM-1 ) Pete Conrad Joseph Kerwin Paul Weitz 1973-05-25 13:00:00 UTC 1973-06-22 13:49:48 UTC 28.03 Skylab 3 SL-3 ( SLM-2 ) Alan Bean Owen Garriott Jack Lousma 1973-07-28 11:10:50 UTC 1973-09-25 22:19:51 UTC 59.46 Skylab 4 SL-4 ( SLM-3 ) Gerald Carr Edward Gibson William Pogue 1973-11-16 14:01:23 UTC 1974-02-08 15:16:53 UTC 84.04 Skylab 5 — Vance Brand William B. Lenoir Don Lind (April 1974, cancelled) — 20 (notional) Skylab Rescue — Vance Brand — Don Lind (On Standby) — Predicted to last less than 5 days L.B. James of NASA Marshall predicted in 1970 that an astronomer, medical doctor, and third scientist might compose each Skylab crew. [ 165 ] NASA Astronaut Group 4 and NASA Astronaut Group 6 were scientists recruited as astronauts. They and the scientific community hoped to have two on each Skylab mission, but Deke Slayton , director of flight crew operations, insisted that two trained pilots fly on each. [ 166 ] Although the scientists were qualified jet pilots, NASA headquarters made the final decision of one scientist in each Skylab crew on 6 July 1971, after the deaths of three cosmonauts on Soyuz 11. [ 165 ] Kerwin was the first Skylab scientist-astronaut. NASA chose a medical doctor to better understand the effect of spaceflight on the human body on a long-duration mission. Astronauts trained for minor medical procedures at a Houston hospital emergency department . [ 165 ] SMEAT [ edit ] Main article: Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test The Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test or SMEAT was a 56-day (8-week) Earth analog Skylab test. [ 167 ] The test had a low-pressure high oxygen-percentage atmosphere but it operated under full gravity, as SMEAT was not in orbit. The test had a three-astronaut crew with Commander Robert Crippen , Pilot Karol J. Bobko , and Science Pilot William E. Thornton ; [ 168 ] there was a focus on medical studies and Thornton was an M.D. [ 169 ] The crew lived and worked in the pressure chamber, converted to be like Skylab, from July 26 to September 20, 1972. [ 54 ] Mission Emblem Commander Pilot Science Pilot Start date End date Duration Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT) Bob Crippen Karol Bobko William Thornton July 26, 1972 September 20, 1972 [ 54 ] 56 days ED 24 experiment chart example Program cost [ edit ] From 1966 to 1974, the Skylab program cost a total of US$2.2 billion, (equivalent to $17 billion in 2023). As its three three-person crews spent 510 total man-days in space, each man-day cost approximately US$20 million, compared to US$7.5 million for the International Space Station . [ 170 ] Depictions in film [ edit ] A minor storyline of the 1986 film Dogs in Space is an attempt by characters of the Melbourne household to fabricate pieces of Skylab and win a radio station's competition to locate debris from the space station as it fell to earth in Australia. The documentary Searching for Skylab was released online in March 2019. It was written and directed by Dwight Steven-Boniecki and was partly crowdfunded . [ 171 ] The alternate history Apple TV+ original series For All Mankind (2019) depicts the use of the space station in the first episode of the second season, surviving to the 1980s and coexisting with the Space Shuttle program in the alternate timeline. [ 172 ] In the 2011 film Skylab , a family gathers in France and waits for the station to fall out of orbit. It was directed by Julie Delpy. [ 173 ] The 2021 Indian film Skylab depicts fictitious incidents in a Telangana village preceding the disintegration of the space station. [ 174 ] The 2024 series Last Days of the Space Age is set in 1979 Western Australia , during Skylab's reentry near Perth. [ 175 ] The waste disposal equipment in the backup Skylab at the National Air and Space Museum . A mannequin in the backup Skylab at the Smithsonian Institution National Air and Space Museum . Skylab commemorative stamp , issue of 1974. The commemorative stamp reflects initial repairs to the station, including the parasol sunshade. Illustration of Skylab configuration with docked command and service module Vanguard (T-AGM-19) seen as a NASA Skylab tracking ship. Note the tracking radar and telemetry antennas. Robbins medallions issued for Skylab missions. Space Center Houston Skylab 1-G Trainer mannequin. The main module S-IVB is a section of the Saturn V rocket. See also [ edit ] Spaceflight portal Timeline of longest spaceflights Skylab II (proposed space station) \" Spacelab \", a 1978 song by Kraftwerk Solar panels on spacecraft References [ edit ] Footnotes [ edit ] ^ Belew, L. F.; Stuhlinger, E. (January 1973). \"EP-107 Skylab: A Guidebook\" . NASA . Retrieved February 28, 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ Belew (1977) , p. 18 ^ Belew (1977) , p. 15 ^ a b c d e Belew, L. F.; Stuhlinger, E. (January 1973). \"EP-107 Skylab: A Guidebook. Chapter IV: Skylab Design and Operation\" . NASA History . Retrieved May 29, 2016 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ a b \"SATURN V LAUNCH VEHICLE FLIGHT EVALUATION REPORT SA-513 SKYLAB 1\" (PDF) . NASA. 1973 . Retrieved May 29, 2016 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ Bono, Phillip; Gatland, Kenneth (1976). Frontiers of Space (1st American Revised ed.). MacMillan. p. 121. ^ a b c d Benson & Compton (1983) , p. 371. ^ a b c d e \"Skylab's Fiery Fall\" . Time. July 16, 1979. p. 20. Archived from the original on February 13, 2007. ^ a b c d e f g Lewis, Richard S. (1984). The Voyages of Columbia: The First True Spaceship . Columbia University Press. pp. 80– 82. ISBN 0-231-05924-8 – via Google Books. ^ Heppenheimer (1999) , pp. 2–5. ^ Heppenheimer (1999) , pp. 55–60. ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , p. 23. ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , p. 9. ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , p. 10. ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , p. 14. ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , pp. 13–14. ^ MSFC Skylab Orbital Workshop Vol. 1 . May 1974. p. 21-1. OCLC 840704188 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ Heppenheimer (1999) , pp. 198–202. ^ a b Benson & Compton (1983) , p. 17. ^ a b Heppenheimer (1999) , p. 203. ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , pp. 17–19. ^ \"MOL (Manned Orbiting Laboratory)\" . 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American Antiquarian Society . 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. \"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\" . Retrieved February 29, 2024 . ^ a b Chamings, Andrew (May 4, 2023). \"A space station fell to Earth. An Australian boy brought it to San Francisco\" . SFGATE . Retrieved November 20, 2023 . ^ Coates, James (July 1, 1979). \"Skylab Danger Isn't as Small as NASA Hints\" . Boca Raton News. p. 7 – via Google News. ^ a b \"Don L. Lind Oral History Transcript\" (PDF) . Space Center Oral History Project. NASA. May 27, 2005. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ O'Neill, Ian (July 14, 2009). \"Celebrating July 13, \"Skylab-Esperance Day\" \" . seeker.com . Group Nine Media, Inc. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023 . Retrieved July 27, 2019 . ^ Siemer, Hannah (April 17, 2009). \"Littering Fine Paid\" . The Esperance Express. Archived from the original on July 11, 2012. ^ Sutherland, Paul (July 5, 2009). \"NASA's Litter Bill Paid 30 Years On\" . Skymania News. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. ^ a b Kruse, Richard. \"Historic Spacecraft – Skylab\" . ^ Becker, Joachim. \"Cancelled spaceflight mission: Skylab 5\" . spacefacts.de . Retrieved December 3, 2018 . ^ \"Orbital Workshop, Skylab, Backup Flight Unit\" . Smithsonian Institution National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on February 10, 2013 . Retrieved January 15, 2013 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ \"Museum Galleries\" . Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. ^ \"Skylab Engineering Mockup Moves into Saturn V Hall at Space and Rocket Center After 10 Years Outdoors\" . al.com . January 29, 2013. ^ \"Skylab Numbering Fiasco\" . WilliamPogue.com. Archived from the original on February 2, 2009 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . ^ a b c Evans, Ben (2011). At Home in Space: The Late Seventies into the Eighties . New York: Springer. pp. 136– 139, 142. ISBN 978-1-4419-8810-2 . OCLC 756509282 . ^ Elder, Donald C. (1998). \"The Human Touch: The History of the Skylab Program\" . In Mack, Pamela E. (ed.). From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners . The NASA History Series. NASA. SP-4219. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ Benson & Compton (1983) , \"8: The Medical Experiments\" . ^ \"Astronaut Crippen With Skylab Training Hardware\" . NASA. September 14, 2011. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . ^ \"Skylab Medical Experiments Altitude Test (SMEAT)\" . Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. ^ Lafleur, Claude (March 8, 2010). \"Costs of US Piloted Programs\" . The Space Review . Retrieved February 18, 2012 . See author's correction in comments section. ^ Dwight Steven-Boniecki (2019). \"Searching for Skylab, Americas Forgotten Triumph – The Film\" . ^ \" 'For All Mankind' Season 2 blasts off with nods to NASA's shuttle past\" . collectSpace . February 19, 2021 . Retrieved May 9, 2021 . ^ \"Skylab\" . IMDb . 2011 . Retrieved September 9, 2021 . ^ Dundoo, Sangeetha Devi (November 30, 2021). \"The curious case of Skylab space station crash and a new Telugu film\" . The Hindu . ISSN 0971-751X . ^ \"Cameras roll on Disney+ local dramedy Last Days of the Space Age | TV Tonight\" . tvtonight.com.au . July 21, 2022 . Retrieved September 20, 2024 . Works cited [ edit ] Belew, Leland. F., ed. (1977). Skylab, Our First Space Station . NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office. OCLC 2644423 . SP-400. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Benson, Charles Dunlap & Compton, William David (1983). Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab . NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office. OCLC 8114293 . SP-4208. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Heppenheimer, T. A. (1999). The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle . NASA History Office. OCLC 40305626 . SP-4221. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Martin Marietta & Bendix (September 1978). Skylab Reuse Study . NASA. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Edelson, Edward (January 1979). \"Saving Skylab: The Untold Story\" . Popular Science – via Google Books. Further reading [ edit ] Newkirk, Roland W.; Ertel, Ivan D.; Brooks, Courtney G. (1977). Skylab: A Chronology . NASA. SP-4011. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . SP-402 A New Sun: The Solar Results from Skylab This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Skylab Mission Evaluation – NASA report (PDF format) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Skylab Reactivation Mission Report 1980 – NASA report (PDF format) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Skylab . Part of a series on the United States space program NASA U.S. Space Force Human spaceflight programs Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Space Shuttle Shuttle– Mir International Space Station Commercial Crew Constellation Artemis Lunar Gateway Robotic spaceflight programs CRS Explorers GLS Large Strategic Lunar Orbiter Lunar Precursor Mariner Mars Exploration New Millennium Pioneer Planetary Missions Discovery New Frontiers Solar System Exploration Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Vanguard Viking Voyager X-37 NASA Astronaut Corps Mercury Gemini Apollo Space Shuttle Spaceports Eastern Range Cape Canaveral Space Force Station Kennedy Space Center Wallops Flight Facility Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska Western Range Vandenberg Space Force Base Space launch vehicles Alpha Antares Atlas V Electron Falcon 9 Falcon Heavy LauncherOne Minotaur I III IV V C New Glenn New Shepard Pegasus Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur National security space United States Space Force National Reconnaissance Office United States Space Command Civil space Department of Energy national laboratories Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service Office of Space Commerce Space Weather Prediction Center Department of State Office of Space Affairs Office of Science and Technology Policy Commercial space industry Astra Ball Aerospace Bigelow Aerospace Blue Origin Boeing Firefly Aerospace Lockheed Martin Raytheon Rocket Lab Northrop Grumman Sierra Nevada Corporation SpaceX SSL United Launch Alliance Virgin Galactic Virgin Orbit v t e Voices of Oklahoma interview with William Pogue. First person interview conducted with William Pogue on 8 August 2012. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project NASA [ edit ] NASA History Series Publications (many of which are on-line) SP-4011 Skylab, a Chronology (1977) 1 SP-401 Skylab, Classroom in Space (1977) SP-399 Skylab EREP Investigations Summary (1978) SP-402 A New Sun: Solar Results from Skylab (1979) SP-404 Skylab's Skylab's Astronomy and Space Sciences (1979) Skylab: Four Rooms Earth View on YouTube NASA Educational Film Airlock Module under construction (1971) ( Medium ) Airlock and Docking Module together (1972) ( Medium ) Skylab Crew Quarters Illustration Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Apollo (in foreground) and Skylab space food Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ( M487 ) Third party [ edit ] Skylab Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Leland F. Belew Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Files of Leland Belew, Skylab's project manager eoPortal: Skylab Historic Spacecraft: Skylab Skylab reboost module Skylab Reentry (Chapter 9 of SP-4208) Skylab cutaway drawing from Encyclopædia Britannica Archived July 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Cutaway line drawing of Skylab Skylab \"Christmas tree\" Teresa Ann Jennings Skylab Photograph Collection at The Museum of Flight Digital Collections v t e Skylab Flights Skylab 1 (uncrewed) Skylab 2 Skylab 3 Skylab 4 Astronauts Skylab 2 Pete Conrad (Commander) Joseph Kerwin (Science Pilot) Paul Weitz (Pilot) Skylab 3 Alan Bean (Commander) Owen Garriott (Science Pilot) Jack Lousma (Pilot) Skylab 4 Gerald Carr (Commander) Edward Gibson (Science Pilot) William Pogue (Pilot) Contingencies Skylab B Teleoperator Retrieval System Skylab Rescue (not flown) Skylab 5 Skylab Rescue Vance D. Brand (Commander) Don L. Lind (Pilot) People William C. Schneider (Program director) Jack Kinzler (Parasol fix designer) Raymond Loewy (Habitability consultant) Related Apollo Applications Program Apollo command and service module Apollo/Skylab spacesuit Beta cloth Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment Apollo Telescope Mount Crawler-transporter Manned Space Flight Network Skylab 4 human factors Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT) Wet workshop Searching for Skylab (2019 documentary) v t e Apollo program List of missions canceled missions List of Apollo astronauts Launch complexes Launch Complex 34 Launch Complex 37 Launch Complex 39 A B Ground facilities Mission Control Center Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Crawler-transporter Kennedy Space Center Manned Space Flight Network Launch vehicles Little Joe II Saturn Saturn I Saturn IB Saturn V Spacecraft and rover Apollo spacecraft Command and Service Module Lunar Module Lunar Roving Vehicle Flights Uncrewed AS-101 AS-102 AS-201 AS-202 Apollo 4 Apollo 5 Apollo 6 † Crewed Apollo 1 † Apollo 7 Apollo 8 Apollo 9 Apollo 10 Apollo 11 Apollo 12 Apollo 13 † Apollo 14 Apollo 15 Apollo 16 Apollo 17 Saturn development Saturn-Apollo 1 SA-2 SA-3 SA-4 SA-5 AS-203 Apollo 4 Apollo 6 † Abort tests QTV Pad Abort Test-1 A-001 A-002 A-003 Pad Abort Test-2 A-004 Pegasus flights AS-103 AS-104 AS-105 Apollo 8 specific Earthrise Genesis reading Apollo 11 specific Command Module Columbia Lunar Module Eagle Tranquility Base Double crater Little West crater Goodwill messages Lunar sample displays Missing tapes Anniversaries 50th Anniversary commemorative coins In popular culture Apollo 12 specific Statio Cognitum Surveyor 3 Surveyor crater Bench Crater meteorite J002E3 Moon Museum Reports of Streptococcus mitis on the Moon Apollo 13 specific \"Houston, we've had a problem\" Apollo 14 specific Modular Equipment Transporter Fra Mauro formation Big Bertha Moon tree Apollo 15 specific Journey Lunar operations Solo operations Return to Earth Hadley–Apennine Fallen Astronaut Genesis Rock Great Scott Hadley Rille meteorite Seatbelt basalt Postal covers incident Apollo 16 specific Big Muley Apollo 17 specific The Blue Marble Taurus–Littrow Tracy's Rock Nansen-Apollo crater Shorty crater Lunar sample display Lunar basalt 70017 Troctolite 76535 Apollo Lunar Sounder Experiment Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey Post-Apollo capsule use Skylab 2 3 4 Apollo–Soyuz Related Lunar orbit rendezvous Stolen and missing Moon rocks Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings Symbol † indicates failure or partial failure v t e Space stations and settlements List of space stations List of commercial space stations Current International Space Station (ISS) Tiangong space station (TSS) Past Russia / Soviet Union Salyut Salyut 1 DOS-2 † Salyut 2 † ‡ Cosmos 557 † Salyut 3 ‡ Salyut 4 Salyut 5 ‡ Salyut 6 Salyut 7 Mir United States OPS 0855 ° Skylab China Tiangong program Tiangong-1 Tiangong-2 Private Genesis I ° II ° Canceled Individual projects Aurora Station Bigelow Commercial Space Station Deep Space Habitat Excalibur Almaz Exploration Gateway Platform Galaxy Industrial Space Facility Manned Orbiting Laboratory Nautilus-X OPSEK Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station Skylab II ( FlexCraft ) Skylab B Sundancer Tiangong-3 Incorporated into ISS Space Station Freedom USOS Columbus MTFF Columbus (ISS module) Mir-2 ROS In development Russia Russian Orbital Service Station Private Axiom Station Haven-1 Orbital Reef Starlab International Lunar Gateway Proposed Bharatiya Antariksha Station Japanese Space Station Module (Mitsui) Lunar Orbital Station Voyager Station Concepts Bernal sphere Bishop Ring McKendree cylinder O'Neill cylinder Rotating wheel Space settlement Stanford torus Wet workshop Related List of films featuring space stations Space stations and habitats in fiction Mission to Mir (1997 documentary) Space Station 3D (2002 documentary) Orphans of Apollo (2008 documentary) Space Tourists (2009 documentary) A Beautiful Planet (2016 documentary) Notes: † Never inhabited due to launch or on-orbit failure, ‡ Part of the Almaz military program, ° Never inhabited, lacks docking mechanism. v t e United States human spaceflight programs Active Artemis International Space Station Commercial Crew Completed X-15 Mercury Gemini Apollo Apollo Applications Skylab Apollo–Soyuz Space Shuttle Shuttle- Mir Canceled Constellation Dyna-Soar HL-20 Personnel Launch System Man in Space Soonest Manned Orbiting Laboratory Nova Orbital Space Plane Orion (nuclear) NASP Freedom v t e NASA Policy and history History ( creation ) NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Space Task Group (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Ranks and positions Chief Budget NASA research spinoff technologies NASA+ NASA TV NASA Social Launch Services Program Mercury Control Center Manned Space Flight Network Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 Launch Complex 48 Launch Control Center Operations and Checkout Building Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Sample Laboratory Science Mission Directorate Human spaceflight programs Past X-15 ( suborbital ) Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz (with the Soviet space program ) Space Shuttle Shuttle– Mir (with Roscosmos ) Constellation Current International Space Station Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Crew Orion Artemis Lunar Gateway Robotic programs Past Hitchhiker Mariner Mariner Mark II MESUR Mars Surveyor '98 New Millennium Lunar Orbiter Pioneer Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Viking Project Prometheus Mars Exploration Mars Exploration Rover Current Living With a Star Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Earth Observing System Great Observatories program Explorers Voyager Discovery New Frontiers Solar Terrestrial Probes Commercial Lunar Payload Services SIMPLEx Individual featured missions (human and robotic) Past Apollo 11 COBE Mercury 3 Mercury-Atlas 6 Magellan Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Galileo timeline GALEX GRAIL WMAP Space Shuttle Spitzer Space Telescope Sojourner rover Spirit rover LADEE MESSENGER Aquarius Cassini Dawn Kepler space telescope Opportunity rover timeline observed RHESSI InSight Ingenuity helicopter flights Currently operating Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey New Horizons International Space Station Hubble Space Telescope Swift THEMIS Mars Exploration Rover Curiosity rover timeline GOES 14 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter GOES 15 Van Allen Probes Solar Dynamics Observatory Juno Mars Science Laboratory timeline NuSTAR Voyager 1 Voyager 2 WISE MAVEN MMS OSIRIS-REx Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite Mars 2020 Perseverance rover timeline James Webb Space Telescope timeline PACE Europa Clipper Future NISAR Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope DAVINCI VERITAS Communications and navigation Near Earth Network Space Network Deep Space Network ( Goldstone Madrid Canberra Space Flight Operations Facility ) Deep Space Atomic Clock NASA lists Astronauts by name by year Gemini astronauts Apollo astronauts Space Shuttle crews NASA aircraft NASA missions uncrewed missions Apollo missions Space Shuttle missions United States rockets NASA cancellations NASA cameras on spacecraft NASA images and artwork Earthrise The Blue Marble Family Portrait Pale Blue Dot Pillars of Creation Mystic Mountain Solar System Family Portrait The Day the Earth Smiled Fallen Astronaut Deep fields Lunar plaques Pioneer plaques Voyager Golden Record Apollo 11 goodwill messages NASA insignia Gemini and Apollo medallions Mission patches Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images Related \" We choose to go to the Moon \" Apollo 8 Genesis reading Apollo 15 postal covers incident Apollo Lunar Module Space Mirror Memorial The Astronaut Monument Lunar sample displays Moon rocks stolen or missing U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame Space program on U.S. stamps Apollo 17 Moon mice Moon tree Other primates in space NASA International Space Apps Challenge Astronauts Day National Astronaut Day Nikon NASA F4 Category Commons v t e Crewed spacecraft ( programs ) Active China Shenzhou Russia Soyuz United States Crew Dragon Starliner New Shepard Retired Soviet Union Vostok Voskhod Buran United States X-15 Mercury Gemini Apollo Command and service module Apollo Lunar Module Space Shuttle SpaceShipOne SpaceShipTwo In development China Mengzhou Lanyue India Gaganyaan Russia Orel United States Orion Starship Starship HLS Blue Moon Dream Chaser Cancelled United States SpaceShip III v t e McDonnell and McDonnell Douglas aircraft and spacecraft Civil Airliners DC-8 DC-9 DC-10 Air Tanker Twin MD-10 MD-11 MD-12 MD-80 MD-81 MD-82 MD-83 MD-87 MD-88 MD-90 MD-91X MD-92X MD-94X MD-95 Model 188E Model 210 High Speed Civil Transport Business jets Model 119/220 Fighters USAAF / US Air Force XP-67 XF-85 Goblin XF-88 Voodoo F-101 Voodoo F-110 Spectre F-4 Phantom II F-15 Eagle F-15E Strike Eagle F-15EX Eagle II Northrop YF-23 US Navy / USMC FH  Phantom F2H Banshee F3H Demon F-4 Phantom II F/A-18 Hornet F/A-18E/F Super Hornet Export CF-101 Voodoo F-4E Phantom (RAAF) F-4K Phantom · F-4M Phantom · F-4J(UK) Phantom CF-18 / CF-188 Hornet F/A-18A/B Hornet (RAAF) Licensed F-15J Eagle (Mitsubishi) Attack US Navy / USMC A-4 Skyhawk AV-8B Harrier II A-12 Avenger II Export A-4G Skyhawk Trainers US Navy T-45 Goshawk Transports US Air Force Model 119 C-9 Nightingale KC-10 Extender YC-15 C-17 Globemaster III US Navy C-9 Skytrain II Licensed Model 188 Helicopters US Army / US Air Force XH-20 Little Henry AH-64 Apache US Navy XHJH Whirlaway XHCH XHRH Other Model 120 Flying Crane MD500 Defender Drones (UAVs) US Air Force ADM-20 Quail US Navy KDH  Katydid KUD Other Aquiline Experimental US Army / US Air Force XV-1 X-36 F-15 STOL/MTD Bird of Prey DC-X Spacecraft NASA Mercury Gemini Gemini B Big Gemini Skylab US Air Force Blue Gemini Model numbers 2 11 12 16 23 24 25 27 31 36 36–36V 36W–36DH 37 38 50 51 58 61 78 79 82 85 86 95 98 107 119 120 127 133 133A–133K 133L–133P 133Q 151 164 182 183 188 192 195 199 210 220 228 258 258AP 267 v t e ← 1972 Orbital launches in 1973 1974 → Luna 21 ( Lunokhod 2 )* Kosmos 543 Kosmos 544 Kosmos 545 Kosmos 546 Kosmos 547 Molniya-1 No.31 Kosmos 548 Prognoz 3 Kosmos 549 Kosmos 550 Kosmos 551 OPS 6063 OPS 8410 Meteor-M No.29 Kosmos 552 Nauka-16KS No.2L Salyut 2 Molniya-2-5 Pioneer 11 Kosmos 553 Kosmos 554 Interkosmos 9 Anik A2 Unnamed Kosmos 555 Nauka-14KS No.2 Kosmos 556 Kosmos 557 Skylab OPS 2093 Kosmos 558 Kosmos 559 Unnamed Kosmos 560 Unnamed Skylab 2 Kosmos 561 Nauka-9KS No.1 Meteor-M No.27 Kosmos 562 Kosmos 563 Kosmos 564 Kosmos 565 Kosmos 566 Kosmos 567 Kosmos 568 Kosmos 569 Kosmos 570 Kosmos 571 Kosmos 572 Explorer 49 OPS 6157 Kosmos 573 Kosmos 574 Kosmos 575 OPS 4018 Kosmos 576 Unnamed Molniya-2-6 OPS 8261 ITOS-E Mars 4 Kosmos 577 Mars 5 Skylab 3 Kosmos 578 Mars 6 Mars 7 OPS 8364 Kosmos 579 OPS 7724 Kosmos 580 Intelsat IV F-7 Kosmos 581 Kosmos 582 Molniya-1-24 Kosmos 583 Kosmos 584 Kosmos 585 Kosmos 586 Unnamed Kosmos 587 Soyuz 12 OPS 6275 Kosmos 588 Kosmos 589 Kosmos 590 Kosmos 591 Kosmos 592 Kosmos 593 Kosmos 594 Kosmos 595 Kosmos 596 Kosmos 597 Kosmos 598 Kosmos 599 Kosmos 600 Kosmos 601 Molniya-2-7 Kosmos 602 Explorer 50 Kosmos 603 Kosmos 604 Transit-O 20 Interkosmos 10 Kosmos 605 Kosmos 606 Mariner 10 NOAA-3 Kosmos 607 OPS 6630 OPS 6630/2 OPS 7705 Molniya-1 No.32 Skylab 4 Kosmos 608 Kosmos 609 Kosmos 610 Kosmos 611 Kosmos 612 Kosmos 613 Molniya-1-26 Kosmos 614 Kosmos 615 OPS 9433 OPS 9434 Explorer 51 Kosmos 616 Soyuz 13 Kosmos 617 Kosmos 618 Kosmos 619 Kosmos 620 Kosmos 621 Kosmos 622 Kosmos 623 Kosmos 624 Kosmos 625 Molniya-2-8 Oreol 2 Kosmos 626 Kosmos 627 Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Crewed flights are indicated in underline . Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics . Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in (brackets). Authority control databases : National Germany United States Israel\n",
      "\n",
      "Coordinates : 48°50′54″N 02°18′15″E ﻿ / ﻿ 48.84833°N 2.30417°E ﻿ / 48.84833; 2.30417\n",
      "Family of European medium- and heavy-lift rocket launch vehicles The first ever Ariane 4 launch from Kourou on June 14, 1988 Ariane is a series of European civilian expendable launch vehicles for space launch use. The name comes from the French spelling of the mythological character Ariadne . France first proposed the Ariane project and it was officially agreed upon at the end of 1973 after discussions between France, Germany and the UK. The project was Western Europe's second attempt at developing its own launcher following the unsuccessful Europa project. The Ariane project was code-named L3S (the French abbreviation for third-generation substitution launcher). The European Space Agency (ESA) charged Aérospatiale (whose former assets now form Airbus ) with the development of all Ariane launchers and of the testing facilities, while Arianespace handled production, operations and marketing after its creation in 1980. Arianespace launches Ariane rockets from the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou in French Guiana . As a result of the merger in 2000 that founded Airbus, the new corporation's space branch and subsequently its subsidiary with Safran , ArianeGroup , took over the duties of the defunct Aérospatiale. Ariane versions [ edit ] Ariane 1 Ariane 2 Ariane 3 Ariane 4 Ariane 5 Ariane 6 │ 1975 │ 1980 │ 1985 │ 1990 │ 1995 │ 2000 │ 2005 │ 2010 │ 2015 │ 2020 │ 2025 Launch vehicle Launches: successes / total Variants Payload to GTO Payload to LEO Height Mass Stages Ariane 1 9 / 11 - 1,850 kg (4,080 lb) - 47.46 m (155.7 ft) 211,500 kg (466,300 lb) 3 Ariane 2 5 / 6 - 2,180 kg (4,810 lb) - 49.13 m (161.2 ft) 220,950 kg (487,110 lb) 3 Ariane 3 10 / 11 - 2,700 kg (6,000 lb) - 49.13 m (161.2 ft) 234 t (258 short tons) 3 Ariane 4 113 / 116 40, 42P, 42L, 44P, 44LP, 44L 2,000–4,300 kg (4,400–9,500 lb) 5,000–7,600 kg (11,000–16,800 lb) 58.72 m (192.7 ft) 240–470 t (260–520 short tons) 3 Ariane 5 115 / 117 G, G+, GS, ECA 6,950–10,500 kg (15,320–23,150 lb) 16,000–21,000 kg (35,000–46,000 lb) 46–52 m (151–171 ft) 720–780 t (790–860 short tons) 2 Ariane 6 0 / 1 62, 64 5,000–10,500 kg (11,000–23,100 lb) 7,000–20,000 kg (15,000–44,000 lb) ~63 m (207 ft) 500–900 t (550–990 short tons) 2 Ariane Next In early development, due for launch from the 2030s [ 1 ] - - - - - - Evolution of the Ariane rocket family Ariane 1 was a three-stage launcher, derived from missile technology. The first two stages used hypergolic propellants and the third stage used cryogenic liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen (LH2/LOX). Ariane 2–4 were enhancements of the basic vehicle. The major differences are improved versions of the engines , allowing stretched first- and third-stage tanks and greater payloads. The largest versions can launch two satellites , mounted in the SPELDA (Structure Porteuse Externe pour Lancements Doubles Ariane) adapter. Such later versions are often seen with strap-on boosters . These layouts are designated by suffixes after the generation number. First is the total number of boosters, then letters designating liquid - or solid-fuelled stages. For example, an Ariane 42P is an Ariane 4 with two solid-fuel boosters. An Ariane 44LP has two solid, two liquid boosters, and a 44L has four liquid-fuel boosters. Ariane 5 rocket at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum , Paris Ariane 5 is a nearly complete redesign. The two hypergolic lower stages are replaced with a single LH2/LOX core stage. This simplifies the stack, along with the use of a single core engine ( Vulcain ). Because the core cannot lift its own weight, two solid-fuel boosters are strapped to the sides. The boosters can be recovered for examination, but are not reused. There are two versions of the upper stage, one hypergolic and restartable with a single Aestus engine [ 2 ] and the other with a HM7B cryogenic engine burning LH2/LOX. On 4 May 2007, an Ariane 5-ECA rocket set a new commercial payload record, lifting two satellites with a combined mass of 9.4 tonnes. [ 3 ] By January 2006, 169 Ariane flights had boosted 290 satellites, successfully placing 271 of them on orbit (223 main passengers and 48 auxiliary passengers) for a total mass of 575,000 kg successfully delivered on orbit. [ citation needed ] Attesting to the ubiquity of Ariane launch vehicles, France's Cerise satellite , which was orbited by an Ariane 4 in 1995, [ 4 ] struck a discarded Ariane rocket stage in 1996. [ 5 ] The incident marked the first verified case of a collision with a piece of catalogued space debris . [ 6 ] On February 16, 2011, the 200th Ariane rocket was launched, successfully carrying the Johannes Kepler ATV into low Earth orbit and providing International Space Station with supplies. [ 7 ] On November 26, 2019, flight number 250 was performed, lifting two communications satellites : TIBA-1 and Inmarsat-5 F5 (GX5). [ 8 ] On December 25, 2021, Ariane flight VA256 lifted NASA's James Webb Space Telescope towards Earth/Sun Lagrange point L2. [ 9 ] Ariane 5 flew its final mission on 5 July 2023. [ 10 ] See also [ edit ] List of Ariane launches Liquid fly-back booster Comparison of orbital launchers families Diamant Europa (rocket) Vega French space program European Space Agency Arianespace References [ edit ] ^ Patureau de Mirand, Antoine (July 2019). Ariane Next, a vision for a reusable cost efficient European rocket (PDF) . 8th European Conference for Aeronautics and Space Sciences. doi : 10.13009/EUCASS2019-949 . Retrieved 18 August 2021 . ^ Aestus Rocket Engine Archived 2014-02-02 at the Wayback Machine Astrium (European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company) ^ European rocket powers to record BBC news ^ \"SPACEWARN Bulletin Number 501\" . NASA . Archived from the original on 2009-08-14 . Retrieved 2009-08-26 . ^ \"Space Junk\" . Newsweek . Archived from the original on 2009-10-08 . Retrieved 2009-08-26 . ^ \"CO 2 prolongs life of 'space junk' \" . BBC News . May 5, 2005 . Retrieved 2009-08-26 . ^ Gebhardt, Chris (2011-02-15). \"Ariane 5 launches ATV-2 for journey to the ISS\" . NASASpaceFlight.com . Retrieved 2019-12-24 . ^ \"Ariane's 250th mission is a success: TIBA-1 and Inmarsat GX5 are in orbit!\" . Arianespace . Retrieved 2019-12-24 . ^ \"Ariane 5 launches NASA's James Webb Space Telescope\" . 25 December 2021. ^ Svenson, Adam (2023-07-06). \"Last Ariane 5 Mission Leaves Europe Without Launch Capacity\" . AIR SPACE News . Retrieved 2023-07-23 . External links [ edit ] European Space Agency Arianespace Downloadable paper models of various ESA spacecraft (Ariane at the bottom) v t e Ariane (rocket family) Rockets Current Ariane 6 In development Ariane Next Retired Ariane 1 Ariane 2 Ariane 3 Ariane 4 Ariane 5 Launch sites Guiana Space Centre ( Kourou ) ELA-1 ELA-2 ELA-3 ELA-4 Engines Aestus HM7B P120C P160C Viking Vinci Vulcain Launches List of launches 1979–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2019 2020–2029 Flights VA240 VA241 VA242 VA244 VA243 VA245 VA246 VA247 VA248 VA253 VA254 VA255 VA256 VA262 Organizations Manufacturing ArianeGroup Airbus Space Aérospatiale (merged) Safran Aircraft Engines Beyond Gravity MT Aerospace SABCA Nammo Launch provider Arianespace Related European Space Agency CNES Related Proposals SUSIE Cancelled Adeline Ariane 5 ME DC4EU Hermes Retired Automated Transfer Vehicle Europa Category Multimedia v t e Rocket families Carrier rockets China Long March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 Kuaizhou Europe / ESA Ariane Diamant Europa Vega Miura 1 5 India PSLV GSLV LVM3 Japan Epsilon H-II / H-IIA / H-IIB Mu South Korea KSLV 1 2 3 Soviet Union / Russia Angara Kosmos N1 Proton R-7 Molniya Soyuz Vostok Universal Rocket Soviet Union / Ukraine Tsyklon Zenit United States Antares Athena Atlas Delta Electron Falcon 1 9 Heavy Jupiter Minotaur Pegasus Saturn Scout Titan Thor Other nations Safir Shavit Unha Sounding rockets Black Brant Lambda Rohini Rehbar Skylark Missiles Aggregat Agni Minuteman Peacekeeper Redstone R-7 Semyorka R-36 RS-82 Universal Rocket Some families include both missiles and carrier rockets; they are listed in both groups. v t e European orbital launch systems Active Ariane 6 Vega In development Ariane Next Bloostar Haas 2b Haas 2CA Miura 5 Miura Next North Star RFA One Skylon SL1 Spectrum Retired Ariane 1 2 3 4 5 Black Arrow Diamant Europa Cancelled Aldebaran Ariane 5 ME Ariane M Capricornio Haas Hopper HOTOL Hyperion SSTO Liberty Liquid fly-back booster derivatives BAC Mustard OTRAG SOAR Media related to Ariane (rocket) at Wikimedia Commons\n",
      "Infrared space telescope (2003–2020) Spitzer Space Telescope An artist rendering of the Spitzer Space Telescope Names Space Infrared Telescope Facility Mission type Infrared space telescope Operator NASA / JPL / Caltech COSPAR ID 2003-038A SATCAT no. 27871 Website www.spitzer.caltech.edu Mission duration Planned: 2.5 to 5+ years [ 1 ] Primary mission: 5 years, 8 months, 19 days Final: 16 years, 5 months, 4 days Spacecraft properties Manufacturer Lockheed Ball Aerospace Launch mass 950 kg (2,094 lb) [ 1 ] Dry mass 884 kg (1,949 lb) Payload mass 851.5 kg (1,877 lb) [ 1 ] Power 427 W [ 2 ] Start of mission Launch date 25 August 2003, 05:35:39 ( 2003-08-25UTC05:35:39 ) UTC [ 3 ] Rocket Delta II 7920H [ 4 ] Launch site Cape Canaveral SLC-17B Entered service 18 December 2003 End of mission Disposal Deactivated in Earth-trailing orbit Deactivated 30 January 2020 [ 5 ] Orbital parameters Reference system Heliocentric [ 1 ] Regime Earth-trailing [ 1 ] Eccentricity 0.011 [ 6 ] Perihelion altitude 1.003 AU [ 6 ] Aphelion altitude 1.026 AU [ 6 ] Inclination 1.13° [ 6 ] Period 373.2 days [ 6 ] Epoch 16 March 2017 00:00:00 Main telescope Type Ritchey–Chrétien [ 7 ] Diameter 0.85 m (2.8 ft) [ 1 ] Focal length 10.2 m (33 ft) Wavelengths infrared , 3.6–160 μm [ 8 ] Instruments IRAC Infrared Array Camera IRS Infrared Spectrograph MIPS Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer NASA Great Observatories ← Chandra Infrared observations can see objects hidden in visible light, such as HUDF-JD2 , shown. This shows how the Spitzer IRAC camera was able to see beyond the wavelengths of Hubble's instruments. The Spitzer Space Telescope , formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility ( SIRTF ), was an infrared space telescope launched in 2003, that was deactivated when operations ended on 30 January 2020. [ 5 ] [ 9 ] Spitzer was the third space telescope dedicated to infrared astronomy, following IRAS (1983) and ISO (1995–1998). It was the first spacecraft to use an Earth-trailing orbit , later used by the Kepler planet-finder. The planned mission period was to be 2.5 years with a pre-launch expectation that the mission could extend to five or slightly more years until the onboard liquid helium supply was exhausted. This occurred on 15 May 2009. [ 10 ] Without liquid helium to cool the telescope to the very low temperatures needed to operate, most of the instruments were no longer usable. However, the two shortest-wavelength modules of the IRAC camera continued to operate with the same sensitivity as before the helium was exhausted, and continued to be used into early 2020 in the Spitzer Warm Mission . [ 11 ] [ 12 ] During the warm mission, the two short wavelength channels of IRAC operated at 28.7 K and were predicted to experience little to no degradation at this temperature compared to the nominal mission. The Spitzer data, from both the primary and warm phases, are archived at the Infrared Science Archive (IRSA). In keeping with NASA tradition, the telescope was renamed after its successful demonstration of operation, on 18 December 2003. Unlike most telescopes that are named by a board of scientists, typically after famous deceased astronomers, the new name for SIRTF was obtained from a contest open to the general public.\n",
      "The contest led to the telescope being named in honor of astronomer Lyman Spitzer , who had promoted the concept of space telescopes in the 1940s. [ 13 ] Spitzer wrote a 1946 report for RAND Corporation describing the advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory and how it could be realized with available or upcoming technology. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] He has been cited for his pioneering contributions to rocketry and astronomy , as well as \"his vision and leadership in articulating the advantages and benefits to be realized from the Space Telescope Program.\" [ 13 ] The US$776 million [ 16 ] Spitzer was launched on 25 August 2003 at 05:35:39 UTC from Cape Canaveral SLC-17B aboard a Delta II 7920H rocket. [ 3 ] It was placed into a heliocentric (as opposed to a geocentric ) orbit trailing and drifting away from Earth's orbit at approximately 0.1 astronomical units per year (an \"Earth-trailing\" orbit [ 1 ] ). The primary mirror is 85 centimeters (33 in) in diameter, f /12 , made of beryllium and was cooled to 5.5 K (−268 °C; −450 °F). The satellite contains three instruments that allowed it to perform astronomical imaging and photometry from 3.6 to 160 micrometers, spectroscopy from 5.2 to 38 micrometers, and spectrophotometry from 55 to 95 micrometers. [ 8 ] History [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( January 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an infrared telescope above the obscuring effects of Earth's atmosphere.\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# Open the file and read the first 20 lines\n",
    "with open('llm.txt', 'r', encoding='utf-8') as file:\n",
    "    lines = file.readlines()\n",
    "    # Print the first 20 lines\n",
    "    for line in lines[:20]:\n",
    "        print(line.strip())"
   ]
  }
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