diff --git a/Appendix/Student_Summaries.ipynb b/Appendix/Student_Summaries.ipynb index 0deab25..867304a 100644 --- a/Appendix/Student_Summaries.ipynb +++ b/Appendix/Student_Summaries.ipynb @@ -1673,65 +1673,3 @@ "nbformat": 4, "nbformat_minor": 2 } - -Determining the Internal Structures of Stars -Starting in the 1960s computers became advanced enough to carry out calculations for modeling the internal structure of stars. -The study of stellar structure shows us that stars change over very slow timesclaes compared to human life. -Some stellar events can be very rapid and dramatic. -Stars have a limited supply of energy, where they eventually use up the energy and die. -Stellar evolution is the result of a constant fight against the pull of gravity. -7.1.2 -The Derivation of the Hydrostatic Equilibrium Equation -An electrostatic force has opposite charges, where gravitational force is always attractive. - -An opposing force must exit in a star to avoid collapse. -The pressure within a star varies with depth. -Consider a cylinder of mass dm whose base is located a distance r from the center of a spherical star. - -The top and bottom of the cylinder each have an area A and the height is dr. -We assume that the only forces acting on the cylinder are gravity and the force due to pressure, which is always normal to the top and bottom cylinder surface. -These forces also vary with the cylinder's distance from the center of the star. -Using Newton's second law F=ma, this is the net force along the central axis of the cylinder dmd2rdt2=Fg+Fp,top+Fp,bot, where the gravitational force Fg and pressure force on the top of the cylinder F_{p,top} are directed inward, while the pressure force on the bottom Fp,bot of the cylinder is directed upward. - -The pressure forces on the curved side of the cylinder will cancel due to symmetry and have been explicitly excluded from the expression. -The pressure force at the top and bottom of the cylinder are at different sepths, and we can rewrite the equation from Newton's second law -7.1.3 -The Equation of Mass Conservation -A relationship for spherical symmetry can be derived using mass, radius, and density. -This can be done by considering a shell of mass dMr and thickness dr located a distance r from the center of the shell. -we assume that dr is less than r -the volume of the shell is 4πr2dr -Using the relation for density, we can find the mass conservation equation, dMrdr=4πr2p -This equation describes the mass distribution within a star. -7.2 -Pressure Equation of State -Gas has the properties of mass, density, temperature, pressure, and volume that describe how it exist. -This is the state that the gas is in -The state represents a macroscopic view of the particle and its interactions. -This information is necessary to derive a pressure equation of state for the gas. -The ideal gas law is an example of a pressure equation of state. PV=NkT=nRT -This ideal gas law relates the gas pressure P, volume V, and Temperature T, to the number of particles N. -k is the Boltzmann constant, and R is the gas constant. -For astrophysical problems, we need a pressure equation of state that is more general than the ideal gas law. -7.2.1 -The Derivation of the Pressure Integral -The pressure of a gas is the force per area exerted on the walls of its container due to collisions. -A gas is in a cylinder of length x and cross-sectional area A. The gas is composed of point particles, each of mass m, that interact through perfectly elastic collisions. -The gas exerts a pressure on one end of the container. -The impact of an individual particle on the container wall is described through a change in momentum. -Newton's second and third laws can be applied. -For a perfectly elastic collision, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. -The particle approaches the wall in the positive x-direction and rebounds along the negative x-direction. -Using Newton's 3rd Law, the impulse delivered tot he wall is, 2pxi -this is using the x-component of the particle's initial momentum px. -The average force exerted by the particle per unit time can be dertermined by the time interval between collisions. -the shortest time interval is when the particle traverses the length of the cylinder twice before returning for a second reflection. -The average force exerted on the wall by a single particle over a time period is given by, F=2pxΔt=pxvxΔx. -In this equation it is assumed that the force vector is normal to the surface. -The average force per particle having a momentum p is F(p)=pv3Δx -It is usually the case that the particles have a range of incident angles. -this makes the number of particles with momenta between p and p+dp similar to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. -it is given by the expression Npdp. -The sum of all the forces exerted by particle collisions is F=13∫NpΔxpvdp -The pressure exerted on the wall is, P=FA=13∫nppvdp. -This equation is called the pressure integral, which allows us to compute the pressure given a distribution function.