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Computing from Scratch

Instruction Set Architecture

Defines the operations and encoding formats.

Assembler

Converts plain text assembly into machine code.

Virtual Machine

Simulates basic building blocks of hardware.

Bootloader

Initializes machine and loads operating system from storage

Kernel

Manages computer resources.

• Communication Manager
• Process Manager
• Memory Manager
• IO Manager

Operating System

• Device Drivers
• Utilities
• Shell/Terminal
• User Interface/User Experience